HOME Visas Visa to Greece Visa to Greece for Russians in 2016: is it necessary, how to do it

The importance for a person of knowledge about his structure. General overview of the human body: systems, structure and functions

09.01.2024

Explanatory note

The biology program for the 8th grade of a basic school (hereinafter referred to as the Program) is compiled on the basis of the Federal component of the state educational standard for basic general education in biology (Order of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation No. 1312 of 03/09/2004), a sample program for basic general education in biology recommended by the Ministry of Education and science of the Russian Federation, the author’s biology program for grade 8 V.S. Rokhlov and S.B. Trofimov in accordance with the currently valid basic curriculum. The program is developed taking into account the age characteristics of students and the logic of the development of biological concepts.

Goals:

1. Mastering knowledge about the structure of the human body and its inherent patterns of development, life activity, and the role of biological science in the practical activities of people; psychology, hygiene, medicine and other areas; methods of studying living nature in general and humans in particular;

2. Mastering the ability to apply biological knowledge to explain the processes occurring in the body, use information about modern achievements in the field of biology and ecology; work with biological devices, instruments, reference books; conduct observations of biological objects, biological experiments;

3. Development of cognitive interests, intellectual and creative abilities in the process of conducting observations of the body, biological experiments, sociometric techniques, working with various sources of information;

4. Fostering a positive value attitude towards living nature; culture of behavior in nature; the advisability of a healthy lifestyle;

5. Use of acquired knowledge and skills in everyday life to be able to provide first aid; compliance with hygiene standards and rules, assessing the consequences of one’s activities in relation to the natural environment, one’s own body, and the health of other people; to comply with rules of behavior in the environment, healthy lifestyle standards, prevention of diseases, injuries and stress.

Tasks:
1. Determine the systematic position of man in the series of living beings;

2. Understand the relationship between the structure and functions of organs and systems;

3. Learn to identify possible health problems and consult a doctor in time;

4. Learn to provide first aid if necessary.

Place of the subject in the curriculum

The subject of biology in the 8th grade is allotted 70 hours at the rate of 2 hours per week.

Content elements

1

Introduction.

1

The importance of knowledge about the structural features and vital functions of the human body for self-knowledge and maintaining health. A complex of sciences that study the human body.

2

The place of man in the system of the organic world.

2

The place of man in the system of the animal world. Similarities between humans and animals. Differences between humans and animals. Features of man as a social being. Origin of modern humans. Races.

3

The structure of the human body.

6

A cell is a structural and functional unit of an organism. Tissues of the human body, their structure and functions. The human body as a single system. Internal environment of the human body. Homeostasis.

4

Nervous system.

6

Characteristics of the human nervous system: central and peripheral, somatic and autonomic. Nerves, nerve fibers and nerve ganglia. Reflex activity of the human body. Reflex arc, reflex ring, reflex circuits. Structure and functions of the spinal cord. Brain. Structure and functions of the cerebral cortex. Features of human brain development and its functional asymmetry.

5

Internal secretion organs. Neurohumoral regulation of body functions.

6

Humoral regulation of functions in the body. Glands and their classification. Endocrine glands, features of their structure and functions. Hormones, their role in regulating the physiological functions of the body. Glands of mixed secretion. The hypothalamic-pituitary system of regulation of body functions and the role of feedback in this process. Interaction of nervous and humoral regulation systems.

6

Sense organs. Analyzers. Sensory systems.

6

The importance of sense organs in human life. Types of sensations. Receptors. Sense organs. Analyzers and sensor systems. Eyes and vision. Visual perception. Optical system. The retina is the receptor part of the eye. Visual receptors: cones and rods. Visual impairment: myopia, farsightedness, color blindness. Visual hygiene. Ear and hearing. Sound perception. Structure and functions of the organ: outer, middle and inner ear. Hearing hygiene. Organs of balance, smell, taste, muscle and skin. Interaction of analyzers. Prevention of diseases of the sensory organs. The influence of environmental factors on the senses.

7

Behavior.

10

Needs and motives of behavior. Reflex theory of behavior. THEM. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov are the founders of the doctrine of higher (mental) functions of the nervous system. The theory of dominance by A. A. Ukhtomsky and the theory of the functional system of behavior by P. K. Anokhin. Hereditary behavioral programs: instincts and unconditioned reflexes. Imprinting (imprinting). Non-hereditary behavioral programs: conditioned reflexes, dynamic stereotype, rational activity, insight. Teaching 6
I. P. Pavlova about two signal systems. Speech is its function. Thinking. Behavior. Psyche. Sleep as a form of learned behavior. Types of sleep. Dreams. Sleep hygiene. Memory, its meaning and types. Types of appearance and temperament. Diversity of feelings: emotions, stress.

8

Covers of the body.

2

Skin is the outer covering of the body. Structure and functions. Skin derivatives: hair, nails, sweat and mammary glands. The influence of environmental factors on the skin. Skin hygiene. Nail and hair care. Hardening the body.

9

Support and movement.

5

The human skeleton, its structure, meaning and functions. Properties of the composition, structure and connection of bones. Features of the human skeleton associated with upright posture and labor activity. The influence of environmental factors and lifestyle on its development. Structure and functions of muscles. The main muscle groups of the human body. Muscle work and fatigue. The importance of physical exercise for skeletal formation and muscle development. Disruption of the normal development of the musculoskeletal system.

10

Internal environment of the body.

5

Composition of the internal environment of the body: intercellular fluid - lymph, blood. Composition and functions of blood. Formed elements of blood: red blood cells, leukocytes, platelets. Blood groups. Rh factor. Blood transfusion. Donation. Blood clotting. Protective functions of blood. The role of phagocytes, the work of I. I. Mechnikov on the study of phagocytosis. Immunity and its types. Immune system defects. The role of preventive vaccinations in the fight against infectious diseases. The concept of homeostasis.

11

Blood circulation and lymphatic drainage.

4

Blood circulation, its significance. Circulatory organs: heart, blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries). Circulation circles. Lymph flow in the body. The structure and work of the heart. Cardiac cycle. Heart sounds. Regulation of heart function. Sinus node. Systolic volume of the heart. Electrocardiography. Pulse. Features and reasons for the movement of blood through the vessels, redistribution of blood in the body. The speed of blood flow in the vessels. blood pressure. Hygiene of the cardiovascular system. Prevention of cardiovascular diseases. First aid for bleeding. The influence of environmental factors on the functioning of the cardiovascular system.

12

Breath.

4

General characteristics of the human breathing process. Respiratory organs, their structure and functions. Breathing movements. Lung volumes. Gas exchange in the lungs and tissues. Regulation of breathing. Respiratory hygiene. Breathing muscle training. Preventing damage to the vocal apparatus. Fighting dust and air pollutants. The harm of smoking. Prevention of airborne infections. First aid for breathing problems. Artificial respiration.

13

Digestion.

5

Nutrition and its role in the development of the body. Digestion. Nutrients and food products. Structure and functions of the digestive organs. Enzymes. Contribution of I. P. Pavlov to the study of the digestive system. Digestion in the oral cavity. Teeth and care for them. The importance of teeth and tongue in mechanical processing of food. Saliva and salivary glands. Salivation reflex. Swallowing. Digestion in the stomach. Gastric juice. Nervous and humoral regulation of gastric secretion. Appetite. Digestion in the small intestine. The role of the liver and pancreas in digestion. Absorption of nutrients. Features of digestion in the small and large intestines. Food hygiene, prevention of gastrointestinal diseases. Prevention of food poisoning.

14

Metabolism and energy conversion.

5

General characteristics of metabolism. Types of metabolism: plastic, energetic, general, basic. Metabolism of organic substances, its regulation. Biological value of food proteins. Water-mineral metabolism and its regulation. Vitamins, their role in the life of the human body. Avitaminosis and hypovitaminosis. Nutrition. Nutrition standards. Food rations. Digestibility of food. Thermoregulation of the human body. First aid for heat and sunstroke, burns, frostbite.

15

Selection.

2

The role of excretory organs in metabolism. Excretory organs. Kidneys, their structure and functions. Formation of secondary urine and its removal from the body. Prevention of diseases of the urinary system.

16

Human reproduction and development.

3

The structure of the male and female reproductive systems. Sex cells: egg and sperm. Maturation of germ cells. Fertilization. Development of a fertilized egg, embryo. Placenta. Pregnancy and childbirth. Human development after birth. Newborn period, early childhood, preschool period, school period, adolescence. Youth. Physiological, mental and social maturity. The role of heredity and social factors in human intellectual development.

Thematic planning

No.	Chapter	Number of hours
1	Introduction	1
2	General overview of the human body	5
3	Musculoskeletal system	8
4	Blood. Circulation	9
5	Respiratory system	6
6	Digestive system	6
7	Metabolism and energy. Vitamins	3
8	urinary system	2
9	Leather	3
10	Endocrine system	2
11	Nervous system	6
12	Sense organs. Analyzers	6
13	Behavior and psyche	6
14	Individual human development	7
	Total	70

Calendar and thematic planning

8th grade

Quarter	Month	A week	№	Title of the lesson topic
				1. Introduction
First	September October	1	1	The importance of knowledge about the structural features and vital functions of the human body for self-knowledge and maintaining health. Methods for studying the human body, their significance and use in one’s own life. Sciences about the human body.
				Topic 1. General overview of the human body
			2	General information about the human body. The place and role of man in the system of the organic world, his similarities with animals and differences from them.
		2	3	The structure and vital processes of the human body. Cell: structure, chemical composition and vital functions.
		2	4	Fabrics. Laboratory work No.. 1 “Viewing epithelial, connective and muscle tissues under a microscope”
		3	5	Organs. Organ systems in the body. Levels of organization of the body. Nervous and humoral regulation.
			6	Generalization of knowledge on the topic “Human body. General review".
				Topic 2. Musculoskeletal system
		4	7	Support and movement. Musculoskeletal system. Skeleton. Structure and composition of bones.
		4	8	Connection of bones.
		5	9	Skeleton of the head and torso
		5	10	Skeleton of limbs.
		6	11	Techniques for providing first aid to yourself and others for injuries of the musculoskeletal system: sprains, dislocations of joints, bone fractures. Prevention of injuries.
		6	12	Muscles. Types of muscles, their structure and significance.
		7	13	Muscle work. Development of the musculoskeletal system. The importance of physical exercise and work culture for the formation of the skeleton and muscles.
		7	14	Poor posture and flat feet. Laboratory work No.. 2 “Determination of postural disorders and flat feet”
				Topic 3. Blood. Circulation
		8	15	Transport of substances. Internal environment of the body. Circulatory and lymphatic systems. The importance of the constancy of the internal environment of the body. Blood. The meaning of blood and its composition. Laboratory work No.. 3 “Comparison of human blood with frog blood.”
		8	16	Immunity. Organs of the immune system. Factors affecting immunity. The significance of the works of L. Pasteur and I. I. Mechnikov in the field of immunity. Works by E. Jenner. Antibodies. Preventive vaccinations. The concept of vaccine and therapeutic serum. Allergic reactions. Types of immunity.
		9	17	Blood groups. Histocompatibility and blood transfusion.
		9	18	The structure and work of the heart.
Second	November	10	19	Lymph. Movement of lymph. Lymphatic system.
		10	20	Movement of blood through vessels. Blood pressure and pulse. Practical work: 1.Measuring blood pressure.
		11	21	Regulation of the heart and blood vessels. Prevention of heart and vascular diseases.
		11	22	Arterial and venous bleeding. First aid techniques for bleeding. Practical work No. 3. “Study of techniques for stopping capillary, arterial and venous bleeding.”
		12	23	Repetition and generalization of material on the topic “Blood. Circulation"
				Topic 4 Respiratory system
			24	Breath. The meaning of breathing. Respiratory system.
	December	13	25	The structure of the respiratory organs. The structure of the lungs. Gas exchange in the lungs and tissues. Laboratory work No. 4 :Determination of respiratory rate.
		13	26	Breathing movements. Regulation of breathing. Practical work No. 4 . "Measuring chest circumference."
		14	27	Respiratory hygiene. Atmospheric air purity as a health factor. Respiratory diseases and their prevention. Preventing the spread of infectious diseases and following preventive measures to protect your own body. The harm of smoking.
		14	28	First aid for respiratory damage. First aid techniques for carbon monoxide poisoning, rescuing a drowning person.
		15	29	Repetition and generalization of material on the topic: “Respiratory system”
				Topic 5. Digestive system
			30	Nutrition. Digestion. The meaning of food and its composition. Food as the biological basis of life.
		16	31	Digestive system. The structure and significance of teeth.
		16	32	Digestion in the mouth and stomach. The role of enzymes in digestion. Laboratory work No. 5 “Introduction to the effect of salivary enzymes on starch”
Third	January	17	33	Digestion in the intestines. Absorption of nutrients.
		17	34	Regulation of digestion. Research by I.P. Pavlova in the field of digestion. Food hygiene. Nutrition and health. Disorders of the digestive system and their prevention. Prevention of diseases of the digestive system. Prevention of hepatitis and intestinal infections.
		18	35	Generalization of knowledge on the topic “Digestive system”
				Topic 6: Metabolism and energy. Vitamins
			36	Metabolism and energy conversion in the body. Metabolic processes in the body. Plastic and energy metabolism. Exchange of water, mineral salts, proteins, carbohydrates and fats.
		19	37	Balanced diet. Norms and diet. Practical work No. 5 . “Functional test with maximum breath holding before and after exercise”
		19	38	Vitamins, their relationship with enzymes. Avitaminosis, hypovitaminosis and hypervitaminosis, their signs. Manifestation of avitaminosis and measures to prevent it. Preservation of vitamins in food. Water- and fat-soluble vitamins.
				Topic 7. Urinary system
	February	20	39	Selection. Genitourinary system. Structure and functions of the excretory system.
		20	40	Diseases of the urinary system and their prevention. Urogenital infections, measures to prevent them to maintain health. Drinking regime. Ecological purity of drinking water is the key to health (using the example of the Tula region).
				Topic 8. Skin
		21	41	Covers of the body. Structure and functions of the skin. The role of the skin in thermoregulation processes. Practical work No. 6 “Determination of skin oiliness using a paper napkin”
		21	42	Skin, hair, nail care. Skin disorders and skin damage. Techniques for providing first aid to yourself and others for injuries, burns, frostbite and their prevention. Hardening the body.
		22	43	Repetition and generalization on the topic “Skin”
				Topic 9: Endocrine system.
			44	Endocrine system. Glands of internal and mixed secretion. Neurohumoral regulation of vital processes of the body.
		23	45	Hormones, mechanisms of their action on cells. The role of hormones in metabolism, growth and development of the body. Disturbances of the endocrine system and their prevention.
				Topic 10. Nervous system
			46	Nervous system. Reflex and reflex arc. The meaning, structure and functions of the nervous system. Practical work No. 7. “Identification of the action of autonomic vascular reflexes during streak irritation of the skin”
	March	24	47	Autonomic (vegetative) division of the nervous system.
		24	48	Neurohumoral regulation of vital processes of the body. Disorders of the nervous system and their prevention.
		25	49	Spinal cord.
		25	50	Brain: structure and functions.
		26	51	Generalization of knowledge on the topics “Endocrine system”, “Nervous system”.
				Topic 11. Sense organs. Analyzers
			52	Sense organs, their role in human life. How sense organs and analyzers work.
Fourth	April	27	53	Structure and functions of the organ of vision. Visual analyzer. Practical work No. 8 . “Identification of the functions of the pupil and lens. Detection of a blind spot" (Structure and operation of the organ of vision).
		27	54	Diseases and damage to the eyes. Visual impairments, their prevention.
		28	55	Structure and functions of the hearing organ. Hearing impairments, their prevention.
		28	56	Vestibular apparatus. Muscle and skin sensations. Smell. Taste. Interaction of analyzers.
		29	57	Generalization of knowledge on the topic “Sense organs. Analyzers".
				Topic 12. Behavior and psyche
			58	Psychology and human behavior. Unconditioned reflexes and instincts. Conditioned reflexes. Features of human behavior. Cognitive activity of the brain. Research by I.M. Sechenova, I.P. Pavlova, A.A. Ukhtomsky, P.K. Anokhina.
		30	59	Patterns of brain function. Features of the human psyche: meaningful perception, verbal and logical thinking, the ability to accumulate and transmit information from generation to generation. The importance of intellectual, creative and aesthetic needs. Goals and motives of activity. Individual personality characteristics: abilities, temperament, character. Interpersonal relationships. Choice of profession.
		30	60	Biological rhythms. The dream and its meaning.
		31	61	Higher nervous activity of man. Biological nature and social essence of man. Speech. Human consciousness. Work. Cognitive processes. Thinking. Memory. Abilities and talent. Temperament and character.
		31	62	Will. Emotions and feelings. Attention. Practical work No. 9 . “Determination of fluctuations in attention during involuntary attention, when trying to hold an image through volitional effort (voluntary attention) and during active work with an object (experience with a truncated pyramid).”
	May	32	63	Dynamics of performance. Daily regime. Interpersonal relationships. The role of training and education in the development of human behavior and psyche. Rational organization of work and rest.
				Topic 13. Individual human development
			64	Reproduction and development. Gonads and germ cells. Human reproductive system. Sex chromosomes. Inheritance of traits in humans. Hereditary diseases, their causes and prevention. Puberty of boys and girls. The inappropriateness of early marriages. The danger of abortion, infertility.
		33	65	Sexually transmitted infections and their prevention. HIV infection and its prevention. Hereditary and congenital diseases. Medical genetic counseling. The role of genetic knowledge in family planning. Taking care of reproductive health.
		33	66	Fertilization, intrauterine development of the body. Pregnancy. Childbirth. The harmful effects of smoking, drinking alcohol and drugs on the development of the body.
		34	67	Development after birth.
		34	68	About the dangers of narcotic substances. Man and environment. Social and natural environment, human adaptation to it. The importance of the environment as a source of substances and energy. Dependence of human health on the state of the environment. Compliance with the rules of behavior in the environment, in dangerous and emergency situations, as the basis for the safety of one’s own life. Culture of attitude towards one's own health. Practical work No. 10. Analysis and assessment of the influence of environmental factors and risk factors on health.
		35	69	Healthy lifestyle. Compliance with sanitary and hygienic standards and rules of a healthy lifestyle. Health promotion: auto-training, hardening, physical activity. The effect of physical exercise on organs and organ systems. Risk factors: stress, physical inactivity, overwork, hypothermia. Bad and good habits, their impact on health.
		35	70	Summarizing

Planned results

students should know:

- levels of organization of a living organism: molecular, cellular, tissue, organ, organ systems;

The structure and basic processes of cell life;

The structure and functions of organs, organ systems, their neurohumoral regulation, similarities and differences in the structure and function of human and mammalian organ systems;

Location of organs in the human body; characteristics of the human body due to work activity, upright posture, and social lifestyle;

Features of the internal environment of the body, immunity, metabolism, thermoregulation, rational nutrition;

- features of growth and development of the human body; the influence of sensory information on human mental development;

Techniques for providing assistance in case of accidents;

The influence of physical and mental stress on the body; factors that preserve and destroy health; the influence of smoking, alcohol, drug addiction on the human body.

students should be able to:

- recognize organs and organ systems using tables; find a connection between the structure and functions of organs;

Explain the influence of work and rest on the body;

Use a microscope, conduct self-observations (count the pulse, determine the state of the senses - vision, hearing), organize proper balanced nutrition;

Provide first aid in case of accidents;

Work with the textbook: use titles, work with text, drawings and notations in the margins of the textbook; check yourself on the questions and indicated notations, draw up a paragraph plan and prepare short reports.

Material and technical support:
1. Textbook biology grade 8 edited by I.D. Traitak

2. Human biology. Culture of health. Notebook - simulator L.N. Sukharukova; Education. 2013

3. Human biology. Culture of health. Notebook - examiner L.N. Sukharukova; Education. 2013

4. Didactic materials on biology Z.V. Borzova; Moscow. 2005

5. Biology in questions and answers Nikolay Lemeza; Iris Press. 2005

6. Preparation tasks for biology olympiads L.M. Kudinova; Volgograd. 2007

7. Presentations on human physiology and anatomy.

Gurnaya Tatyana Vladimirovna

biology teacher at MOAU "Secondary School No. 11 in Orsk"

Item Biology

Class 8

UMK Biology: 8th grade: textbook for students of general education institutions / Dragomilov A.G., Mash R.D.: - 3rd ed., revised. - M.: Ventana-Graf, 2012. - 272 p.: ill.

Level of study base

Lesson topic: The importance of knowledge about the structural features and vital functions of the human body for self-knowledge and maintaining health. A complex of sciences that study the human body. Scientific methods of studying the human body (observation, measurement, experiment).

Total number of hours allocated to study the topic 1

Place of the lesson in the system of lessons on the topic 1

The purpose of the lesson

Creating conditions for the formation of a scientific worldview among studentsabout the sciences involved in the study of the human body and the importance of knowledge of human anatomy and physiology for maintaining health.

Lesson Objectives

organize independent cognitive activity of students to study the history of the development of sciences about the structure and functions of the human body;

instilling in students self-confidence by increasing interest in the subject;

developing the ability to work with text, independently obtain information, and highlight the main thing;

develop group work skills.

Planned results

mastering knowledge about man as a biosocial being; about the role of biological science in the practical activities of people; methods of knowledge of living nature;

Mastering the ability to apply biological knowledge to explain the processes and phenomena of living nature, the life activity of one’s own body; use information about modern advances in the field of anatomy and physiology, health and risk factors; work with additional information; conduct observations of the state of one’s own body, biological experiments;

Development of cognitive interests, intellectual and creative abilities in the process of working with various sources of information;

Fostering a positive value attitude towards living nature, one’s own health and the health of other people;

Using acquired knowledge and skills in everyday life to take care of one’s own health, providing first aid to oneself and others; assessing the consequences of one’s activities in relation to the natural environment, one’s own body, and the health of other people; norms of a healthy lifestyle, prevention of diseases, injuries and stress, bad habits, HIV infection.

Lesson technical support

TV Samsung CS 21z45zQQ

ASUS laptop

Additional methodological and didactic support for the lesson

Cards for working in groups. (Annex 1)

Additional sources of information. (Appendix 2)

Lesson type

Lesson on introducing new material.

Lesson content

Org moment.

The teacher welcomes the students. Checks the class's readiness for the lesson.

Psychological attitude to work.

I am glad to see your faces, your smiles, and I think that this day will bring you joy and communication with each other. Sit comfortably, close your eyes and repeat after me: “I’m at school, I’m in class. I'm happy about this. My attention is growing. As a scout, I will notice everything. My memory is strong. The head thinks clearly. I want to learn. I'm ready to go. I am working.

Motivational stage

Hello guys, listen to F. Fellini’s statement: “Of all the adventures life has in store for us, the most important and interesting is to go inside yourself, to explore the unknown part of yourself.” How do you understand these lines? What does the statement say?

(Slide No. 1)

Students' answers.

I suggest you listen carefully to information about scientists and answer the question - What unites these people?

(Slide No. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)

Hippocrates. (Old Greece)

Ideas about the structure of the human and animal body, “father of medicine”,

The Hippocratic Oath is a doctor's moral code.

Claudius Galen (Roman, anatomist - physiologist)

The work “On the Parts of the Human Body” described bones, many muscles, tendons, blood vessels, pairs of 12 cranial nerves, and studied the physiology of respiration.

Abu Nasr al-Farabi

Works “On the organs of the human body,” City of Mercy,” information about the heart.

Abu Ali ibn Sina (Avicena)

Work “Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology.”

Leonardo da Vinci

Knew the structure of the human body. The work “Treatise on Painting” - the laws of proportions of the human body.

William Harvey (English doctor)

Founder of modern physiology. He studied the movement of blood through the vessels. Discovered the laws of blood circulation.

Work “Anatomical study on the movement of the heart and blood in animals.”

N.I. Pirogov – surgeon, anatomist, doctor

Atlas "Topographic Anatomy". Pathological anatomy. For the first time he used iodine and alcohol to prevent suppuration of wounds, and used ether. He inserted a fixed plaster cast. The founder of military field surgery.

I.M.Sechenov

He created the Russian school of physiologists. Discovered the phenomena of inhibition in the central nervous system. Work "Reflexes of the brain."

I.I.Mechnikov

Nobel Prize winner (1908) - for the theory of immunity. He discovered the phenomenon of phagocytosis and created a theory of the origin of multicellular organisms.

He studied the problems of aging and death (“Etudes on Human Nature”) - “the father of gerontology.”

10.

I.P. Pavlov

Physiologist Nobel Prize laureate (1904) - for research in the field of physiology

blood circulation and digestion. The theory of conditioned reflexes. The doctrine of GNI, two SS.

Students' answers. (Conclusion: All these people studied the human body and made a huge contribution to the development of human sciences.)

Guys in 8th grade we will continue studying the biology course. Man is part of living nature. To maintain health, every person needs knowledge about how his body is structured and how it works. Today we will get acquainted with the sciences that study the human body.

The teacher announces the topic of the lesson.

Students write down the topic of the lesson in a notebook.

Stage familiarization with new material

Introduction to the textbook. Work in groups. The class is divided into three groups. Students receive cards with the task.

1 group

Using the textbook material (§1.pp. 6-7) and additional sources of information, fill out the table

Anatomy is the science of………………………………………………………..

Research methods used in anatomy

Essence of the method

2nd group

Using the textbook material (§1.pp. 7-8) and additional sources of information, fill out the table

Physiology is the science of………………………………………………………..

Research methods used in physiology

Essence of the method

3 group

Using the textbook material (§1.pp. 8-9) and additional sources of information, fill out the table

Hygiene – section………………………………………………………..

Hygienic research methods

Essence of the method

Group work to study new material.

Students distribute information resources among themselves, discuss information, highlight the main points, and fill out the table together.

The teacher observes and corrects the work of the group and individual students.

Mutual checking and monitoring of task completion in the group.

Students reporting the results obtained when called by the teacher, general discussion in the class under the guidance of the teacher, additions and corrections, additional information from the teacher and formulation of final conclusions.

Combining information into a common table. Filling out the table in your workbook.

(Slide No. 7, No. 8)

The stage of primary understanding and consolidation of connections and relationships in the objects of study

Working with terms

The science of the structure of man and his organs……..

The science of the vital functions of the body and its organs…….

The section of medicine on creating conditions for preserving and strengthening health…….

Stage. Setting homework assignments.

Study the text from the textbook§1. pp.6-10; answer questions 1-4 page 9 (orally).

Stage of summarizing the lesson.

Individual assessment of the work of groups and the class as a whole.

Reflection "Three M".

Students are asked to name three things they did well during the lesson and suggest one action that will improve their performance in the next lesson.

Their meaning and use in your own life.

The place and role of man in the system of the organic world , its similarities with animals and differences from them.

The structure and vital processes of the human body.

Neuro-humoral regulation of vital processes of the body. Nervous system. Divisions of the nervous system: central and peripheral. Reflex nature of the activity of the nervous system. Spinal cord, structure and functions. Brain, structure and functions. Somatic and autonomic nervous system. Disorders of the nervous system and their prevention. Endocrine system. Exocrine and internal secretion glands, their structure and functions. Hormones. Regulation of gland activity. Interaction of nervous and humoral regulation.

Nutrition. Research by I.P. Pavlova in the field of digestion. Food as the biological basis of life. Food products and nutrients: proteins, fats, carbohydrates, minerals, water, vitamins. Digestion. Structure and functions of the digestive system. Digestive glands. The role of enzymes in digestion. Prevention of food poisoning, intestinal infections, hepatitis.

Breath. The respiratory system and its role in metabolism. The mechanism of inhalation and exhalation. Respiratory diseases and their prevention. Preventing the spread of infectious diseases and following preventive measures to protect your own body. Atmospheric air purity as a health factor. First aid techniques for carbon monoxide poisoning, rescuing a drowning person.

Internal environment of the body: blood, lymph, tissue fluid. The importance of the constancy of the internal environment of the body.

Blood and its functions. Blood cells. Blood plasma. Blood clotting. Blood groups. Blood transfusion. Lymph. Tissue fluid.

Immunity. Human immune system.Factors affecting immunity. The significance of the works of L. Pasteur and I. I. Mechnikov in the field of immunity. Vaccination.

Transport of substances. Circulatory system. The meaning of blood circulation. Heart and blood vessels. Cardiovascular diseases, causes and prevention. Arterial and venous bleeding. First aid techniques for bleeding. Lymphatic system. The importance of lymph circulation. Connection between the circulatory and lymphatic systems.

Metabolism and energy conversion as a necessary condition for the life of the body. Plastic and energy metabolism. Metabolism and role of proteins, carbohydrates, fats. Water-salt exchange. Vitamins, their role in the body, content in food. The body's daily need for vitamins. Manifestations of vitamin deficiencies and measures to prevent them.

Selection. Genitourinary system. Urogenital infections, measures to prevent them to maintain health.

Reproduction and development. Inheritance of traits in humans. Hereditary diseases, their causes and prevention. The role of genetic knowledge in family planning. Taking care of reproductive health. Sexually transmitted infections, their prevention. HIV infection and its prevention.

Support and movement. Structure and functions of the musculoskeletal system. Prevention of injuries. Techniques for providing first aid to yourself and others for injuries of the musculoskeletal system. Prevention of flat feet and curvature of the spine. Signs of good posture.

Covers of the body. Skin, hair, nail care. Techniques for providing first aid to yourself and others for injuries, burns, frostbite and their prevention.

Sense organs, their role in human life. Analyzers. Visual and hearing impairments, their prevention.

Psychology and human behavior. Higher nervous activity. Research by I.M. Sechenov, I.P. Pavlov, A.A. Ukhtomsky, P.K. Anokhin in the creation of the doctrine of higher nervous activity. Unconditioned and conditioned reflexes, their biological significance. Biological nature and social essence of man. Cognitive activity of the brain. Human consciousness. Memory, emotions, speech, thinking. Features of the human psyche: meaningful perception, verbal and logical thinking, the ability to accumulate and transmit information from generation to generation.

The importance of intellectual, creative and aesthetic needs. Goals and motives of activity. Individual personality characteristics: abilities, temperament, character. The role of training and education in the development of the human psyche and behavior. Rational organization of work and rest. Sleep and wakefulness. The meaning of sleep.

A culture of attitude towards one’s own health and the health of others. Compliance with sanitary and hygienic standards and rules of a healthy lifestyle. Health promotion: physical activity, hardening, auto-training, rational nutrition. Risk factors: stress, physical inactivity, hypothermia, overwork. Bad and good habits, their impact on health.

Man and the environment. The importance of the environment as a source of substances and energy. Dependence of human health on the state of the environment. Compliance with the rules of behavior in the environment, in dangerous and emergency situations, as the basis for the safety of one’s own life.

Demos:

Similarities between humans and animals

The structure and diversity of cells in the human body

Human tissues

Organs and organ systems of the human body

Nervous system

Exocrine and internal secretion glands Digestive system Respiratory system Mechanism of inhalation and exhalation

First aid techniques for carbon monoxide poisoning, rescue

drowning man

Blood composition

Blood groups

Circulatory system

First aid techniques for bleeding Lymphatic system Genitourinary system Structure of the musculoskeletal system

First aid techniques for injuries of the musculoskeletal system Skin structure

First aid techniques for injuries, burns, frostbite Analyzers

Laboratory and practical work Study of the microscopic structure of tissues

Studying the microscopic structure of blood (micropreparations of human and frog blood) Measuring the mass and height of your body Recognizing human organs and organ systems on tables Studying the structure of the human brain (using dummies)

Determination of healthy nutrition standards

Identifying the effect of static and dynamic work on muscle fatigue Counting heart rate at rest and during physical activity Determining breathing rate Measuring blood pressure

Studying techniques for stopping capillary, arterial and venous bleeding Studying the effect of gastric juice on proteins, the effect of saliva on starch Studying the appearance of individual bones Studying changes in pupil size

Analysis and assessment of the influence of environmental factors and risk factors on health Reserve time - 33 hours

CHEMISTRY

MAIN CONTENT (140 hours)

Methods of knowledge of substances and chemical phenomena.

Experimental Fundamentals of Chemistry (8 hours).

Chemistry as part of natural science. Chemistry is the science of substances, their structure, properties and transformations.

Observation, description, measurement, experiment,modeling. The concept of chemical analysis and synthesis.

Rules for working in a school laboratory. Laboratory glassware and equipment. Safety regulations.

Separation of mixtures. Purification of substances. Filtration.

Weighing. Preparation of solutions. Obtaining salt crystals. Carrying out chemical reactions in solutions.

Heating devices. Carrying out chemical reactions when heated.

Methods for analyzing substances. Qualitative reactions to gaseous substances and ions in solution. Determining the nature of the environment. Indicators.

Obtaining gaseous substances.

Demonstrations

Samples of simple and complex substances.

Magnesium combustion.

Dissolving substances in various solvents.

Laboratory experiments

Familiarity with samples of simple and complex substances.

Separation of mixtures.

Chemical phenomena (calcination of copper wire; interaction of chalk with acid).

Practical lessons

Familiarization with laboratory equipment. Rules for safe work in a chemical laboratory.

Cleaning contaminated table salt.

Preparation of a solution with a given mass fraction of dissolved substance.

Substance (25 hours)

Atoms and molecules. Chemical element. The language of chemistry. Signs of chemical elements, chemical formulas. Law of constancy of composition.

Relative atomic and molecular masses. Atomic mass unit. Amount of substance, mol. Molar mass. Molar volume.

Pure substances and mixtures of substances.Natural mixtures: air, natural gas, oil, natural waters.

Qualitative and quantitative composition of a substance. Simple substances (metals and non-metals). Complex substances (organic and inorganic). Main classes of inorganic substances.

Periodic law and periodic system of chemical elements D.I. Mendeleev. Groups and periods of the periodic table.

The structure of the atom. Nucleus (protons, neutrons) and electrons. Isotopes. The structure of the electronic shells of the atoms of the first 20 elements of the periodic table D.I. Mendeleev.

The structure of molecules. Chemical bond. Types of chemical bonds: covalent (polar and non-polar), ionic, metallic. The concept of valency and oxidation state. Drawing up formulas of compounds by valence (or oxidation state).

Substances in solid, liquid and gaseous states. Crystalline and amorphous substances. Types of crystal lattices (atomic, molecular, ionic and metallic).

Demonstrations

Chemical compounds amount of substance in 1 mole.

Model of the molar volume of gases.

Collections of oil, coal and their products.

Introduction to samples of oxides, acids, bases and salts.

Models of crystal lattices of covalent and ionic compounds.

Sublimation of iodine.

Comparison of physicochemical properties of compounds with covalent and ionic bonds.

Samples of typical metals and non-metals.

Calculation problems

Calculation of the relative molecular mass of a substance using the formula.

Calculation of the mass fraction of an element in a chemical compound.

Establishing the simplest formula of a substance based on the mass fractions of elements.

Chemical reaction (15 hours).

Chemical reaction. Equation and diagram of a chemical reaction. Conditions and signs of chemical reactions. Conservation of mass of substances during chemical reactions. Classification of chemical reactions according to various criteria: the number and composition of the starting and resulting substances; changes in oxidation states of chemical elements; absorption or release of energy. The concept of the speed of chemical reactions. Catalysts.

Electrolytes and non-electrolytes. Electrolytic dissociation of acids, alkalis and salts in aqueous solutions. Ions. Cations and anions. Ion exchange reactions. Redox reactions. Oxidizing agent and reducing agent.

Demonstrations

Reactions illustrating the main features of characteristic reactions Neutralization of an alkali with an acid in the presence of an indicator.

Laboratory experiments

Interaction of magnesium oxide with acids.

Interaction of carbon dioxide with lime water.

Obtaining precipitates of insoluble hydroxides and studying their properties.

Practical lessons

Perform experiments demonstrating genetic relationships between major classes of inorganic compounds.

Calculation problems

Calculations using chemical equations of the mass, volume or quantity of one of the reaction products based on the mass of the starting substance and the substance containing a certain proportion of impurities.

Elementary fundamentals of inorganic chemistry (62 hours).

Hydrogen, physical and chemical properties, production and application.

Oxygen, physical and chemical properties, production and application.

Water and its properties. Solubility of substances in water. The water cycle in nature.

Halogens. Hydrogen chloride. Hydrochloric acid and its salts.

Sulfur, physical and chemical properties, occurrence in nature. Sulfur(VI) oxide. Sulfuric acid and its salts. Oxidizing properties of concentrated sulfuric acid. Sulfurous and hydrosulphuric acids and their salts.

Ammonia. Ammonium salts. Nitrogen, physical and chemical properties, preparation and application. Nitrogen cycle. Nitrogen oxides (II and IV). Nitric acid and its salts. Oxidative properties of nitric acid.

Phosphorus. Phosphorus (V) oxide. Orthophosphoric acid and its salts.

Carbon, allotropic modifications, physical and chemical properties of carbon. Carbon monoxide - properties and physiological effects on the body. Carbon dioxide, carbonic acid and its salts. Carbon cycle.

Silicon. Silicon(IV) oxide. Silicic acid and silicates. Glass.

Position of metals in the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements D.I. Mendeleev. The concept of metallurgy. Methods for obtaining metals. Alloys (steel, cast iron, duralumin, bronze). General chemical properties of metals: reactions with non-metals, acids, salts. A range of metal stresses.

Alkali and alkaline earth metals and their compounds.

Aluminum.Amphotericity of oxide and hydroxide.

Iron. Oxides,hydroxides and salts of iron (II and III).

Demonstrations

Interaction of sodium and calcium with water.

Samples of non-metals.

Allotropy of sulfur.

Obtaining hydrogen chloride and dissolving it in water.

Recognition of chlorine compounds.

Crystal lattices of diamond and graphite.

Production of ammonia.

Laboratory experiments

Acquaintance with samples of metals and alloys (working with collections).

Dissolution of iron and zinc in hydrochloric acid.

Displacement of one metal by another from a salt solution.

Acquaintance with samples of natural compounds of non-metals (chlorides, sulfides, sulfates, nitrates, carbonates, silicates).

Acquaintance with metal samples, iron ores, aluminum compounds. Recognition of chloride, sulfate, carbonate anions and cations of ammonium, sodium, potassium, calcium, barium.

Practical lessons

Obtaining, collecting and recognizing gases (oxygen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide). Solving experimental problems in chemistry on the topic “Obtaining metal compounds and studying their properties.”

Solving experimental problems

Basic concepts and key terms: HUMAN BIOLOGY. Health. Disease.

Remember! What does biology study?

Meet us!

René Descartes (1596-1650) - French mathematician, philosopher, physicist and physiologist. This scientist owns the following statements: “Cogito, ergo sum (Cogito, ergo sum) - I think, therefore I exist,” “Watch your body if you want your mind to work correctly.” Think about the meaning of the statements and offer an answer to the question about the importance of knowledge about the human body in our lives.

How and why do we study the human body?

HUMAN BIOLOGY is a science that studies the structure, vital activity and behavior of humans with the aim of applying knowledge in various fields of human activity. To study the human body, knowledge from many sciences is used. These are, first of all, natural (chemistry, physics, geography), biological (embryology, genetics), social (philosophy, history), medical (cardiology, neurology), technical (cybernetics, computer science) sciences. The foundation for human biology is the ancient sciences about our body - anatomy and physiology. Anatomy studies the structure of the human body, and physiology studies its vital functions. Knowledge of the human body is used in a wide variety of areas of human activity.

Table 1. APPLICATION OF BIOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE IN PRACTICAL HUMAN ACTIVITY

	Examples of application of biological knowledge
Rural farming	For growing plants, raising animals, controlling pests, preventing pesticide poisoning
laziness	To obtain food products, natural fabrics, antibiotics
Medicine	For the treatment and prevention of diseases, preservation and strengthening of human health, increasing life expectancy
Psychology	To understand the characteristics of human behavior
	To create devices, apparatus for surgery, prosthetics, cybernetics
Art	To create artistic paintings, sculptures
	To develop the physical capabilities of the human body

The human body is studied through observations and experiments. Conclusions about the state of the body are made based on anthro

metric (for example, height, weight), physiological (for example, blood pressure) and biochemical (for example, hemoglobin content in the blood) studies. Many processes in the body are bioelectric, which led to the emergence of such methods as electroencephalography (study of electrical activity of the brain), electrocardiography (study of heart activity), etc. To study the structure of the human body, microscopy, ultrasound, and radiography are used. Modern methods of studying the human body are nuclear magnetic resonance, positron emission tomography, scanning electron microscopy, etc.

The foundations of modern human biology were laid by such outstanding scientists as Hippocrates, Avicenna, Paracelsus, A. Vesalius,

V. Harvey, I. Pavlov, C. Bernard and many others.

A significant contribution to the development of human biology was made by Ukrainian scientists A. Shumlyansky,

I. Mechnikov, N. Pirogov A. Bogomolets, V. Filatov, V. Chagovets, N. Amosov, P. Kostyuk and others.

So, biological knowledge about humans is used in a wide variety of areas of human activity.

What is the direction of modern biological research on the human body?

Modern human biology directs its research to solve many problems of the 21st century, among which the most important are: overpopulation of the Earth as a whole and population decline in certain regions, the spread of infectious diseases (for example, AIDS, prion infections), treatment of diseases, determination of the possibilities of using genetically modified organisms (GMOs), etc.

The main directions of modern biological research of the human body are: 1) research about

life processes for the purpose of creating biotechnologies (for example, for the treatment of infertility, obtaining tissues and organs for transplantation); 2) study of heredity and variability in order to develop methods for diagnosis and treatment of hereditary human diseases; 3) studying the patterns of aging to increase life expectancy; 4) research into the mechanisms of brain activity (for example, to create biocybernetic systems for perceiving and storing information); 5) studying the influence of space on the human body (for example, to create new materials that protect against the effects of space factors); 6) research of the body in order to design new technical systems (for example, to create android robots, nanotransistors that monitor human health, artificial intelligence systems).

So, biological studies of the human body are extremely diverse, but the determining factor is the focus on studying the structure, physiological functions and behavior in order to maintain health and increase life expectancy.

What is the importance of knowledge about a person for maintaining his health?

As you know, human health is a state of physical, mental and social well-being, which determines a person’s high performance and social activity.

Human health is the subject of study of the science of valeology (from the Greek valeo - health, logos - teaching) and the field of medicine - hygiene (from the Greek hygienos - healing).

Valeological research concerns health, and sanitary hygiene concerns the living environment and living conditions of humans.

Get to know your body

Live in harmony with nature

Be kind and merciful

Build confidence that you are healthy

Wish everyone around you good health

Toughen up

Eat right

Give your body a workout

Limit your use of “artificial” drugs

Find faith in yourself

If recommendations for maintaining health are not followed, diseases may develop. A disease is a disruption of the normal functioning of the body, as a result of which its adaptive capabilities are reduced. Diseases are classified according to various criteria: by causes of occurrence - infectious (viral, bacterial) and non-infectious, by physiological functions - respiratory diseases, circulatory diseases, digestive diseases, etc., by gender and age - women's, childhood diseases, old age diseases, etc. The main the causes of human diseases are physical inactivity,

stress, bad habits, unhealthy diet, violation of work and rest schedules, environmental conditions, the influence of pathogens, etc.

The occurrence of diseases is caused by a variety of factors, but it is estimated that in 50% of cases the occurrence of the disease is associated with the lifestyle of the person himself. Therefore, each of you should know your body and take care of your health, which is the primary human need.

So, biological knowledge about the human body will help each of you understand your capabilities, lead a healthy lifestyle and reach the top in a certain area.

ACTIVITY

Learning to know

Compare the sciences that study the human body and their definitions. If you answer correctly, you will receive the name of an outstanding scientist - one of the founders of space biology.

1 Cytology	In The Science of Human Embryonic Development
2 Histology	E Science about the vital processes of the human body
3 Anatomy	I t The science of the structure and function of tissues
4 Physiology	I 2 The science of the relationship of organisms with each other and with the environment
5 Embryology	Th Science that studies the human brain
6 Genetics	F Science about the structure of the body, its organs and systems
7 Valeology	K Science of human health
8 Ecology	C The science of the laws of heredity and variability
9 Neurobiology	H The science of cell structure and function

Biology + Physics

Having finished his work, he turned off the lamp and suddenly froze in surprise. In complete darkness a slight greenish glow could be seen. On the table there was a jar with a fluorescent substance, from which this beautiful glow emanated. But the radiance must arise under the influence of light! Looking around, the scientist saw that he had forgotten to turn off one device - an electron vacuum tube. He turned off the current - the glow disappeared, turned it on - it appeared. So, the scientist decided, some unknown radiation is emanating from the device.” Prepare a report on a method for studying the human body using these rays.

Biology + Culture

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) is a great Italian artist and scientist, a prominent representative of the type of “universal man” (lat. homo universale). “One must understand what a person is, life, health, and how the balance and coherence of the elements support health, and their discord destroys and destroys it,” he wrote. Compare L. da Vinci’s expression with the definition of health and offer your judgments about the importance of knowledge about a person for maintaining his health.

RESULT

	Questions for self-control
	1. What does human biology study? 2. In what areas of life is biological knowledge about the human body used? 3. Name the sciences that study the human body. 4. Name the directions of modern human biological research. 5. What is the importance of knowledge about a person for maintaining his health? 6. What is a disease?
	7. How and why are the human body studied? 8. Tell us about the direction of modern biological research on the human body. 9. Name the main recommendations for maintaining and strengthening human health.
	10. Prove the importance of biological knowledge about a person for maintaining health.

The body, and with it every living cell, tissue and organ, constantly adapts to changing living conditions.

From a biology textbook

Summary of the topic “INTRODUCTION”

HUMAN ORGANISM -

This is an integral open biological system in which molecular, cellular, tissue, organ and system levels of organization are distinguished and which is characterized by metabolism, energy and information, self-regulation, self-renewal and self-reproduction.

Table 2. THE HUMAN BODY AS A BIOLOGICAL SYSTEM

		Vital functions
Skull, spine, chest, limb girdles, free limbs. Skeletal and muscles of internal organs	Connective (bone, cartilage, dense fibrous) and muscle (striated and smooth)	Body support, protection, movement, blood formation
Four-chambered heart. Arteries, veins, capillaries	Connective (dense and loose fibrous), muscle (striated and smooth), endothelium	Transport of substances and heat
Nasal cavity, nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs	Epithelial (flat and ciliated epithelium), connective (dense fibrous, cartilaginous), smooth muscle	Gas exchange, CO 2 release, thermoregulation, sound formation
Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas and salivary glands	Epithelial (glandular, integumentary), connective (loose and dense fibrous, cartilaginous), smooth muscle	Digestion, absorption of digested food and removal of residues
Epidermis, skin proper, subcutaneous fat tissue	Epithelial (integumentary), smooth muscle, connective (loose and dense fibrous)	Protective, barrier, thermoregulatory, excretory, sensual
Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra	Epithelial (integumentary), connective (loose and dense fibrous), smooth muscle	Excretory, protective, hormonal, hematopoietic
Internal and external genitalia	Covering epithelium. Smooth muscle. Loose and dense fibrous	Formation of gametes and hormones
Pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, adrenal glands, pancreas, gonads	Glandular epithelium	Humoral regulation of body functions
Brain and spinal cord, nerves, nerve ganglia	Nervous tissue	Connection with the environment. Nervous regulation of functions
Organs of vision, smell, taste, hearing, touch	Epithelium, nervous, connective tissue	Perception of stimuli

Self-control of knowledge

Test design 1. INTRODUCTION

I. Choose one correct answer from those given.

1. The human body constantly maintains a temperature of +36.6 °C. Name the set of processes that ensure this stability:

P self-renewal C self-regulation T self-reproduction

2. What class does the organic compound CaCO 3, which is part of bones, belong to?

And salts K base Y acid

3. Name the physiological systems involved in the regulation of the stomach: L endocrine, immune, excretory

M immune, reproductive, digestive N nervous, endocrine, immune

4. What is the function of breaking down nutrients called?

A digestion B nutrition C excretion

5. What cell organelles provide protein synthesis in the human body?

L mitochondria H ribosomes M lysosomes

6. What system transports substances in the body of chimpanzees and humans?

C respiratory T circulatory U excretory

7. Indicate the characteristic in which a person is similar to bacteria, plants, fungi and animals:

O active movement P heterotrophic nutrition P cellular structure

8. Indicate the name of the substances involved in endocrine regulation:

M antibiotics H enzymes O hormones

9. Indicate the science that studies human embryonic development:

O cytology P embryology P histology

II. Construct the correct answer.

10. Indicate the correct answers to tasks 1-9 and get the name of the fossil man depicted in the picture who lived in China:

11. Construct the correct sequence of letters that indicate the levels of organization of the human body below and get the name of an outstanding doctor, the founder of military field surgery: n - atomic; g - organ; o 1 - fabric; o 2 - systemic; c - organismic; and - molecular; p - cellular.

12. Match the names of the parts of the cell with their functions and get the Latin name of the organ shown in the figure.

Elements of cell structure: 1 - mitochondria; 2 - cell center; 3 - core; 4 - lysosomes; 5 - endoplasmic reticulum.

Functions of structural elements: p - preservation of hereditary information; a - splitting of complex substances into simple ones; r - transport of substances in the cell; h - cellular respiration; e - participation in cell division.