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Introduction

The ability to reproduce, that is, to produce a new generation of individuals of the same species, is one of the main characteristics of living organisms. During the process of reproduction, genetic material is transferred from the parent generation to the next generation, which ensures the reproduction of characteristics not only of a given species, but of specific parent individuals. For a species, the meaning of reproduction is to replace those of its representatives who die, which ensures the continuity of the existence of the species; in addition, under suitable conditions, reproduction can increase the total number.

Each new individual, before reaching the stage at which it is capable of reproduction, must go through a number of stages of growth and development. Some individuals die before reaching the reproductive stage (or sexual maturity) as a result of destruction by predators, diseases and various random events; therefore, the species can survive only on the condition that each generation produces more offspring than there were parent individuals who took part in reproduction. Population sizes fluctuate depending on the balance between reproduction and extinction of individuals. There are a number of different breeding strategies, each with certain advantages and disadvantages; all of them will be described in this abstract.

And the purpose of my work is to consider some types of reproduction.

1. Asexual and sexual reproduction

There are two main types of reproduction - asexual and sexual. Asexual reproduction occurs without the formation of gametes and involves only one organism. Asexual reproduction usually produces identical offspring, and the only source of genetic variation is random mutations. Genetic variability is beneficial to the species, since it supplies “raw materials” for natural selection, and therefore for evolution. The offspring that are most adapted to their environment will have an advantage in competition with other members of the same species and will have a greater chance of surviving and passing on their genes to the next generation. Thanks to this, species are able to change, i.e. speciation process is possible. Increased variation can be achieved by mixing the genes of two different individuals, a process called genetic recombination, which is an important feature of sexual reproduction; In a primitive form, genetic recombination is already found in some bacteria.

2. Sexual reproduction

In sexual reproduction, offspring are produced by the fusion of genetic material from haploid nuclei. Usually these nuclei are contained in specialized germ cells - gametes; During fertilization, the gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote, which during development produces a mature organism. Gametes are haploid - they contain one set of chromosomes resulting from meiosis; they serve as a link between this generation and the next (during sexual reproduction of flowering plants, not cells, but nuclei, merge, but usually these nuclei are also called gametes).

Meiosis is an important stage in life cycles involving sexual reproduction, as it leads to a reduction in the amount of genetic material by half. Thanks to this, in a series of generations that reproduce sexually, this number remains constant, although during fertilization it doubles each time. During meiosis, as a result of random divergence of chromosomes (independent distribution) and the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes (crossing over), new combinations of genes appear in one gamete, and such shuffling increases genetic diversity. The fusion of haploid nuclei contained in gametes is called fertilization or syngamy; it leads to the formation of a diploid zygote, i.e. a cell containing one set of chromosomes from each parent. This combination of two sets of chromosomes in the zygote represents the genetic basis of intraspecific variation. Thus, during sexual reproduction in the life cycle, an alternation of diploid and haploid phases occurs, and in different organisms these phases take different forms.

Gametes usually come in two types, male and female, but some primitive organisms produce only one type of gamete. In organisms that produce two types of gametes, they can be produced by male and female parents, respectively, or it may be that the same individual has both male and female reproductive organs. Species in which there are separate male and female individuals are called dioecious; such are most animals and humans. Among flowering plants there are also dioecious species; If in monoecious species male and female flowers are formed on the same plant, as, for example, in cucumber and hazel, then in dioecious species some plants bear only male, and others only female flowers, as in holly or yew.

3. Hermaphroditism

4 . Parthenogenesis

Parthenogenesis is one of the modifications cation of sexual reproduction, in which the female gamete develops into a new individual without fertilization by the male gamete. Parthenogenetic reproduction occurs in both the animal and plant kingdoms and has the advantage of increasing the rate of reproduction in some cases.

There are 2 types of parthenogenesis - haploid and diploid, depending on the number of chromosomes in the female gamete. In many insects, including ants, bees and wasps, various castes of organisms arise within a given community as a result of haploid parthenogenesis. In these species, meiosis occurs and haploid gametes are formed. Some eggs are fertilized and develop into diploid females, while unfertilized eggs develop into fertile haploid males. For example, in the honey bee, the queen lays fertilized eggs (2n = 32), which develop into females (queens or workers), and unfertilized eggs (n = 16), which produce males (drones) that produce sperm by mitosis, and not meiosis. The development of individuals of these three types in the honey bee is schematically presented in Fig. This mechanism of reproduction in social insects has adaptive significance, since it makes it possible to regulate the number of descendants of each type.

In aphids, diploid parthenogenesis occurs, in which the female oocytes undergo a special form of meiosis without chromosome segregation - all chromosomes pass into the egg, and the polar bodies do not receive a single chromosome. The eggs develop in the mother's body, so that young females are born fully formed, rather than hatching from eggs. This process is called viviparity. It can continue for several generations, especially in the summer, until almost complete nondisjunction occurs in one of the cells, resulting in a cell containing all pairs of autosomes and one X chromosome. From this cell the male develops parthenogenetically. These autumn males and parthenogenetic females produce haploid gametes through meiosis that participate in sexual reproduction. Fertilized females lay diploid eggs that overwinter, and in the spring they hatch into females that reproduce parthenogenetically and give birth to live offspring. Several parthenogenetic generations are followed by a generation resulting from normal sexual reproduction, which introduces genetic diversity into the population through recombination. The main advantage that parthenogenesis gives to aphids is the rapid growth of the population, since all its mature members are capable of laying eggs. This is especially important during periods when environmental conditions are favorable for the existence of a large population, i.e. during the summer months.

Parthenogenesis is widespread in plants, where it takes various forms. One of them, apomixis, is parthenogenesis, simulating sexual reproduction. Apomixis is observed in some flowering plants, in which the diploid ovule cell, either a nucellus cell or a megaspore, develops into a functional embryo without the participation of a male gamete. The rest of the ovule forms the seed, and the ovary develops into the fruit. In other cases, the presence of a pollen grain is required, which stimulates parthenogenesis, although it does not germinate; the pollen grain induces hormonal changes necessary for the development of the embryo, and in practice such cases are difficult to distinguish from true sexual reproduction.

asexual reproduction hermaphroditic spore

5. Asexual reproduction

In asexual reproduction, offspring come from one organism, without the fusion of gametes. Meiosis is not involved in the process of asexual reproduction (unless we talk about plant organisms with alternating generations), and the descendants are identical to the parent individual. Identical offspring descended from the same parent are called clones. Members of the same clone can be genetically different only if a random mutation occurs. Higher animals are not capable of asexual reproduction, but several successful attempts have recently been made to clone some species artificially; we will look at them later.

6 . Division

7. Spore formation (sporulation)

A spore is a single-celled reproductive unit, usually microscopic in size, consisting of a small amount of cytoplasm and a nucleus. The formation of spores is observed in bacteria, protozoa, representatives of all groups of green plants and all groups of fungi. Spores can vary in type and function and are often formed in special structures. Often, spores are formed in large quantities and have negligible weight, which makes them easier to spread by wind, as well as by animals, mainly insects. Due to their small size, the spore usually contains only minimal nutrient reserves; Because many spores do not reach a suitable location for germination, spore losses are very high. The main advantage of such spores is the ability to quickly reproduce and spread species, especially fungi. Bacterial spores, strictly speaking, do not serve for reproduction, but to survive under unfavorable conditions, since each bacterium produces only one spore. Bacterial spores are among the most resistant: for example, they can often withstand treatment with strong disinfectants and boiling in water.

8 . Budding

Budding is one of the forms of asexual reproduction, in which a new individual is formed in the form of an outgrowth (bud) on the body of the parent individual, and then separates from it, turning into an independent organism, completely identical to the parent. Budding occurs in different groups of organisms, especially in coelenterates, such as hydra, and in single-celled fungi, such as yeast. In the latter case, budding differs from fission (which is also observed in yeast) in that the two resulting parts have different sizes.

An unusual form of budding is described in the succulent plant bryophyllum, a xerophyte often grown as an ornamental houseplant: miniature plants equipped with small roots develop along the edges of its leaves; these “buds” eventually fall off and begin to exist as independent plants.

9. Reproduction by fragments (fragmentation)

Fragmentation is the division of an individual into two or more parts, each of which grows and forms a new individual. Fragmentation occurs, for example, in filamentous algae such as Spirogyra.

The spirogyra thread can break into two parts anywhere. Fragmentation is also observed in some lower animals, which, unlike more highly organized forms, retain a significant ability to regenerate from relatively poorly differentiated cells. For example, the body of nemerteans (a group of primitive worms, mainly marine) is especially easily torn into many parts, each of which can give rise to a new individual as a result of regeneration. In this case, regeneration is a normal and regulated process; however, in some animals (for example, starfish), restoration from individual parts occurs only after accidental fragmentation.

Animals capable of regeneration serve as objects for experimental study of this process; Often a free-living planarian worm is used. Such experiments help to understand the differentiation process.

10. Vegetative propagation

Vegetative propagation is a form of asexual propagation in which a relatively large, usually differentiated part is separated from the plant and develops into an independent plant. Essentially, vegetative propagation is similar to budding. Often, plants form structures specifically designed for this purpose: bulbs, corms, rhizomes, stolons and tubers. Some of these structures also serve to store nutrients, allowing the plant to survive periods of unfavorable conditions such as cold or drought. Storage organs allow the plant to survive the winter and produce flowers and fruits the following year (biennial plants) or survive for a number of years (perennial plants). These organs, called overwintering organs, include bulbs, corms, rhizomes and tubers. Overwintering organs can also be stems, roots or entire shoots (buds), but in all cases the nutrients they contain are created mainly during the process of photosynthesis occurring in the leaves of the current year. The resulting nutrients are transferred to the storage organ and are then usually converted into some insoluble storage material, such as starch.

When unfavorable conditions occur, the above-ground parts of the plant die, and the underground hibernating organ goes into a dormant state. At the beginning of the next growing season, nutrient reserves are mobilized with the help of enzymes: the buds awaken, and the processes of active growth and development begin in them due to the stored nutrients. If more than one bud sprouts, then we can assume that reproduction has occurred. In some cases, special organs are formed that serve for vegetative propagation. These are the modified parts of the stem - potato tubers, onion bulbs, garlic bulbs, bulbs in the leaf axils of the bluegrass, shoots of the young, etc. Strawberries reproduce with "mustaches." Adventitious roots are formed at the nodes of the shoots, and shoots with leaves are formed from the axillary buds. Subsequently, the internodes die off, and the new plant loses its connection with the mother plant. In agricultural practice, vegetative propagation of plants is used quite widely.

11. Cloning of higher plants and animals

As already mentioned, obtaining identical offspring through asexual reproduction is called cloning. In the early sixties, methods were developed that made it possible to successfully clone some higher plants and animals. These methods arose as a result of attempts to prove that the nuclei of mature cells, having completed their development, contain all the information necessary to encode all the characteristics of an organism, and that cell specialization is due to the turning on and off of certain genes, and not the loss of some of them. The first success was achieved by prof. Steward from Cornell University, who showed that by growing individual carrot root cells (the edible part) in a medium containing the right nutrients and hormones, cell division processes could be induced, leading to the formation of new carrot plants.

Soon after, Gurdon, working at Oxford University, achieved the first cloning of a vertebrate animal. Vertebrates do not form clones under natural conditions; however, by transplanting a nucleus taken from a frog intestinal cell into an egg whose own nucleus had previously been destroyed by ultraviolet irradiation, Gurdon managed to grow a tadpole, and then a frog, identical to the individual from which the nucleus was taken.

Experiments of this kind not only prove that differentiated (specialized) cells contain all the information necessary for the development of the whole organism, but also allow us to expect that similar methods can be used for cloning vertebrates at higher stages of development, including humans . Cloning the desired animals, such as breeding bulls, racehorses, etc., may be as profitable as cloning plants, which, as stated, is already being done. However, the application of cloning methods to humans is associated with serious moral problems. Theoretically, it is possible to create any number of genetically identical copies of a given man or woman. At first glance, it might seem that talented scientists or artists could be reproduced in this way. However, we must remember that the degree of influence exerted on development by the environment is not yet entirely clear, and yet any cloned cell must again go through all stages of development, i.e. in the case of a human being, the stages of embryo, fetus, infant, etc.

Conclusion

In the process of work, I looked at some types of reproduction. Not only those that have been known to us for a long time, but also those that we learned about relatively recently (primarily cloning). And who knows, maybe something new will appear soon that we can’t even imagine right now. It is possible that I will discover this new type of reproduction.

Bibliography

1. Bogen G. -Modern biology. - M.: Mir, 1970.

2. Green N., Stout W., Taylor D. -Biology: in 3 volumes. T. 3: trans. from English/ed. R. Soper. -M.: Mir, 1990.

3. From molecules to humans. - M.: Education, 1973.

4. Willie K. - Biology (biological laws and processes). - M.: Mir, 1974.

5. Slyusarev A.A. - Biology with general genetics. - M.: Medicine, 1978.

6. Evelin P. - Anatomy and physiology for nurses. -M.: BelADI (Turtle), 1997.

7. From animals to humans. - M.: Nauka, 1971.

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Plant Kingdom

Is a plant a living organism? In what ways do plants differ from other living organisms?

Let us consider the characteristics of living organisms characteristic of plants.

Breath.Plants, like all living organisms, require oxygen to breathe. They exhale carbon dioxide. All organs and living cells breathe.

Nutrition.Plants use inorganic substances (water, carbon dioxide, mineral salts) for nutrition and, through the process of photosynthesis, they themselves create organic matter. All animals, fungi and most bacteria feed on ready-made organic substances. For example, animals eat plants or other animals. Carbon dioxide enters the above-ground parts of the plant - shoots - from the air. (Photosynthesis occurs in them.) Therefore, shoots are called air nutrition organs. Water and mineral salts are absorbed by the roots from the soil. Accordingly, roots are called soil nutrition organs. In the process of feeding and breathing, living organisms obtain the substances they need from the environment, process them into the substances of their body, and release the resulting unnecessary substances into the environment. Thus, a transformation of substances occurs, which ensures both the vital activity of the organism and the connection with its environment - metabolism. Metabolism is characteristic only of living organisms.

Growth and development.If they talk about growth, they mean an increase in size. The plant body also develops, constantly forming new shoots and always growing. The growth of a plant continues throughout its life. Development involves the formation of new organs (from a bud - a new shoot, from a seed - a sprout, etc.).

Reproduction.Like all living organisms, plants produce offspring. The ability to respond to changing environmental conditions. If environmental conditions are favorable for plants, they actively grow and develop. If not, then the plants either die or the process of their growth and development slows down. Thus, the plants of our strip have adapted to survive unfavorable winter conditions. The leaves of plants growing in the shade are wider than the leaves of plants of the same species grown in the open.

Lifestyle.A distinctive feature of plants is their attached lifestyle. The “immobility” of plants is associated with the ability for constant growth: the surface of the plant body, through which nutrients enter the body, is constantly increasing. Remaining in place, the plant captures new spaces from which it receives nutrition. Therefore, plants do not have a special need to move.

In addition, plants are capable of real movement. Remember how the fruits of the impatiens curl, how the leaves and flowers turn towards the sun (this is especially visible on sunflowers), how the shoots of bindweed, beans or lemongrass, the tendrils of peas wrap around the support, how the leaves of the sorrel fold, the flowers close and open.

Interactive lesson-simulator. (Complete all lesson tasks)

All plants are living organisms. They eat, breathe, metabolize, release unnecessary substances into the environment, grow and develop, reproduce and respond to environmental influences.

Plants differ from other living organisms - bacteria, fungi and animals - by their ability to create organic substances from inorganic ones, using the energy of the Sun. At the same time, plants release oxygen into the environment.

Unlike animals, plants lead an attached lifestyle and are capable of constant growth and the formation of new organs.

In the "Plant Kingdom" section you can study:

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Abstract for the presentation

The presentation "Plants - a living organism" is dedicated to the life of plants - their life processes. In the work, these processes are sorted by type and characterized each separately with schematic images and visual animations.

1. Properties of living organisms
2. Life processes
3. Questions for consolidation

Format

pptx (powerpoint)

Number of slides

Vodopyanova Marina Aleksandrovna

Audience

Words

Abstract

Present

Purpose

• To conduct a lesson by a teacher

Slide 1

Slide 2

Properties of living organisms

• Breathe
• Eating
• Reproduce
• Grow
• Are developing
• Die
• CONSISTED OF CELLS

Slide 3

• CELLS
• ORGAN
• ORGANISM

Slide 4

Life processes

Life activity is the processes occurring in the body and ensuring its existence.

Slide 5

Nutrition and breathing

Slide 6

Metabolism, excretion

Slide 7

Reproduction

Plant propagation

• Asexual
• Sexual

Slide 8

Growth and development

Slide 9

An organism is a living system (biosystem). The life of a plant organism depends on the coordinated work of its organs and on the conditions in which the plant lives. The main life processes of a plant as a living organism: nutrition, respiration, excretion, reproduction, metabolism, growth and development

Slide 10

a) food;

b) breathing;

c) metabolism;

d) release.

Slide 11

a) weight loss;

b) color change;

c) breathing;

d) interaction with the environment.

Slide 12

a) carbon dioxide;

b) oxygen;

d) hydrogen.

Slide 13

a) organism;

d) element.

Slide 14

Homework

§ 3, questions after the paragraph

Slide 15

View all slides

Abstract

(slide No. 1)

ORGANIZING TIME

KNOWLEDGE UPDATED:

Frontal survey

STUDYING NEW MATERIAL:

Plants are living systems.

(slide number 2):

• Breathe
• Eating
• Reproduce
• Grow
• Are developing
• React to external influences
• Die
• Made up of cells

(Explanations for slide No. 6)

Choose the correct answers.

The process of absorption of substances by a plant from the environment, transformation and removal of final waste products from the body is called:

a) food;

b) breathing;

c) metabolism;

d) release.

Characteristic only for living organisms:

a) weight loss;

b) color change;

c) breathing;

d) interaction with the environment.

What does a plant organism secrete during respiration?

a) carbon dioxide;

b) oxygen;

d) hydrogen.

What is the name of a part of an organism that has a certain structure and performs certain functions?

a) organism;

d) element.

HOMEWORK (slide No. 14)

§ 3, questions after the paragraph.

USED ​​SOURCES:

State budgetary educational institution Education Center No. 1456 in Moscow

Summary of a biology lesson in 6th grade “A plant is a living organism”

LESSON No. 4. PLANTS - LIVING ORGANISM

(slide No. 1)

LESSON PURPOSE: to begin to form the concept of an organism as a special unit of life; to specify this concept by characterizing the characteristics of the plant organism; create an idea of ​​the complexity of the life of a plant organism; characterize the basic properties (functions) of plants as living beings; to develop the ability to compare the vital functions of different plants in order to identify their main functions.

EQUIPMENT: herbariums, electronic presentation for the lesson.

ORGANIZING TIME

KNOWLEDGE UPDATED:

Frontal survey

Name the vegetative organs of plants

How do seed plants differ from spore plants?

What spore plants do you know?

Individual survey using flashcards

STUDYING NEW MATERIAL:

Teacher's story with elements of conversation

Plants are living systems.

This year we started studying the Biology course. Biology studies the world of living organisms, their structure, and life activities.

What part of biology are we studying this year? (students' answer)

"Botany" studies plants. This means that the plant is a living organism.

Let's remember the signs of living organisms (student answer)

(slide number 2):

• Breathe
• Eating
• Reproduce
• Grow
• Are developing
• React to external influences
• Die
• Made up of cells

Non-living organisms can have each of these properties or several at once. But there is another common feature - all living organisms, even the smallest ones, consist of cells or their derivatives. In turn, the cells will unite into organs.

What is an organ? What organs did we remember at the beginning of the lesson? (students' answer)

(slide No. 3) A group of organs forms a system in which all organs performing their functions are interconnected and work in harmony, complementing each other. The interconnected work of the organ system ensures the life of plants as a single organism.

What happens if the roots don't absorb water from the soil or the leaves can't make enough nutrients? (students' answer)

In the body, it is impossible to separate the work of one organ from another, since they are all closely interconnected.

Plant life processes.

Life activity is the processes occurring in the body and ensuring its existence. (slide No. 4)

Let's consider the life processes of a plant.

By eating, the body receives the necessary substances for growth and development.

How does the plant feed? (students’ answer) (slide No. 5)

When breathing, the plant receives the oxygen it needs.

In the process of metabolism, the transformation of substances obtained during nutrition and respiration, necessary for the life of the plant, occurs. The unnecessary substances formed in this process are removed, i.e., released. (slide No. 6)

(Explanations for slide No. 6)

Each cell receives nutrients (a and b)

From these substances (a and b), the cell forms its characteristic organic substances (AB) for life.

As a result of a chemical reaction, under the influence of oxygen (red circle), complex substances of the cell are transformed into simpler ones (c and d, CO2 (blue circle) - decomposition products). This releases the energy necessary for life (E)

Once in favorable conditions and reaching a certain age, plants begin to reproduce, that is, increase the number of individuals. (slide No. 7)

Throughout its life, the plant increases in size, that is, it grows, and acquires new properties - it develops. (slide No. 8)

Do all plants develop the same way? What influences plant development? (students’ response, working with the textbook)

Conclusion: An organism is a living system (biosystem). The life of a plant organism depends on the coordinated work of its organs and on the conditions in which the plant lives. The main life processes of a plant as a living organism: nutrition, respiration, excretion, reproduction, metabolism, growth and development. (slide No. 9)

CONSOLIDATING KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS (slides No. 10-13)

Choose the correct answers.

The process of absorption of substances by a plant from the environment, transformation and removal of final waste products from the body is called:

a) food;

b) breathing;

c) metabolism;

d) release.

Characteristic only for living organisms:

a) weight loss;

b) color change;

c) breathing;

d) interaction with the environment.

What does a plant organism secrete during respiration?

a) carbon dioxide;

b) oxygen;

d) hydrogen.

What is the name of a part of an organism that has a certain structure and performs certain functions?

a) organism;

d) element.

HOMEWORK (slide No. 14)

§ 3, questions after the paragraph.

USED ​​SOURCES:

• Kalinina A.A. Lesson developments in biology grade 6. - 3rd ed. - M.: VAKO, 2011. - p.13-21
• Testing and measuring materials. Biology: 6th grade / Comp. S. N. Berezina. – M.: VAKO, 2012, p. 8-9
• Ponomareva I.N., Kornilova O.A., Kuchmenko V.S. Biology: Plants. Bacteria. Mushrooms. Lichens: Textbook for 6th grade students of general education institutions / Ed. prof. I. N. Ponomareva. - 2nd ed., revised. - M.: Ventana-Graf, 2009. - p. 9-15
• Ponomareva I.N., Kornilova O.A., Kuchmenko V.S.. Biology: Plants. Bacteria. Mushrooms. Lichens. Grade 6: Flashcards. – 2nd ed., add. - M.: Ventana-Graf, 2006.
• Ponomareva I.N., Kuchmenko V.S., Simonova L.V. Biology: Plants. Bacteria. Mushrooms. Lichens. 6th grade: Methodological manual. – 2nd ed., revised. - M.: Ventana-Graf, 2007.
• Tretyakov P.V. Biology teacher’s diary: 6th grade: to the textbook by I.N. Ponomareva, O.A. Kornilova, V.S. Kuchmenko “Biology. Plants. Bacteria. Mushrooms. Lichens. 6th grade" - M.: Publishing house "Exam", 2008. – p.14

Download abstract

Consist of organs.

An organ is a part of the body that has a special structure, a specific location in the body and performs a specific function. For example, animal organs include the heart, kidneys, and stomach. Plant organs are leaves, roots, and stems. Each organ in a living organism has special functions inherent only to it.

Thus, in plants, leaves perform functions such as photosynthesis and evaporation; the root absorbs water with nutrients dissolved in it from the soil; the stem provides a connection between the root and the leaves. Together with leaves and buds, the stem forms a shoot - an above-ground plant organ. Root and shoot are the vegetative organs of plants.

Most plants produce flowers. Such plants are called flower plants. From the ovary of the flower, fruits with seeds inside are formed. Therefore, the flower, fruit and seeds are the organs that ensure plant reproduction.

The animal body consists of various organs: heart, lungs, stomach, arteries and the like. To perform vital functions, organs are combined into organ systems. For example, the digestive system consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, and intestines.

Animals have the following organ systems:

• musculoskeletal - provides body movement
• respiratory - provides the body with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide;
• circulatory - transports various substances in the body;
• digestive - ensures the supply and absorption of nutrients by the body;
• sexual - responsible for the reproduction of organisms;
• Nervous - coordinates and controls the functions of the entire body.

Organ systems interact with each other to ensure all vital processes of the body. Therefore, the body of any living creature is a biological system.

Properties of living organisms. Growth and development

Substances from the external environment enter the body and support the vital processes of this organism. During feeding, food enters and breathing ensures the supply of oxygen. The body processes these substances, some are absorbed, and some are excreted, that is, the process of excretion occurs. Thus, an exchange of substances occurs between the body and the environment.

The intake of nutrients from food ensures growth and development; all these processes together are necessary for the entry of a very important property of the body - the ability to reproduce.

Changes in environmental conditions cause corresponding reactions of the body (changes in the behavior of living beings). This property is called irritability. The main properties of living organisms are nutrition, respiration, excretion, metabolism, growth, development, reproduction, irritability.

Growth is an increase in the size and mass of organisms.

Plants grow throughout their life. Their growth is accompanied by an increase in size and the formation of new vegetative organs. This type of growth is called unlimited.

The growth of animals is also accompanied by an increase in size - all the organs that form the body of the animal increase proportionally, but new organs are not formed. Growth continues for a certain period of the animal’s life, that is, it is limited.

Organisms not only grow during their lives, but also develop, changing their appearance; acquire new qualities.

Development refers to irreversible, natural changes that occur in the body of living beings from the moment of its inception to the end of life.

New qualities that appear in plants and animals during development are the ability to reproduce.

Development, during which a new organism from birth is similar to an adult animal, is called direct. This development is typical for most fish, birds, and mammals.

In some animals, development occurs with amazing transformations. For example, in butterflies, eggs hatch into caterpillar larvae, which after some time form a pupa. At the pupa stage, complex transformation processes occur, and a new butterfly emerges from it. Such development is called indirect, or development with transformations. Indirect development is typical for butterflies, beetles, and frogs.

Nutrition and its types

Nutrition is the process of entering, converting and assimilating nutrients into the body.

Thanks to nutrition, organisms receive various chemical compounds that ensure growth, development and other vital processes. Nutrients include organic and inorganic compounds.

Plants, like all living organisms, eat. At the same time, the main feature of plants is the ability to form organic compounds from inorganic ones under the influence of sunlight. This process is called photosynthesis. Plants absorb the water necessary for photosynthesis with minerals dissolved in it from the soil through the roots, and carbon dioxide enters the leaves through the stomata from the air. The process of photosynthesis occurs in cells containing chlorophyll, which gives the plant its green color. Photosynthesis requires sunlight to occur. Plants convert the energy of sunlight into chemical energy, forming complex organic substances, for example, glucose, starch.

The type of nutrition inherent in plants is called autotrophic.

For nutrition, animals need food of plant or animal origin, which contains ready-made organic compounds. Some animals (for example, deer, hare, sheep) eat only plants. They are called herbivores. Others are lion, wolf, fox, etc. - They feed only on other animals. Such animals are called predators or carnivores. Some animals (for example, crows, seagulls, bears) are omnivores: they eat both plant and animal foods.

The type of nutrition characteristic of animal organisms is called heterotrophic.

So, the nutrition of plants and animals is different. Organic substances created by plants during the process of photosynthesis play an important role in nature, since animal life depends on them.

Respiration of plants and animals. The importance of respiration for organisms

In most organisms, respiration is accompanied by the absorption of oxygen and the release of carbon dioxide, that is, gas exchange. But what is important for the body is that oxygen participates in the transformation of organic substances with the release of energy. All living things need oxygen to breathe.

Respiration is a set of processes that ensure the body absorbs oxygen, uses it in the transformation of substances and removes carbon dioxide. Respiration is one of the basic properties of organisms.

Plants do not have special respiratory organs, so it enters the plant organism through special openings called stomata located on the stem and leaves. Plants breathe all the time during the day, but use much less oxygen than they release during photosynthesis. That is why plants are called the “green lungs” of our planet.

The breathing of animals is provided by special organs - the respiratory organs. Thus, fish absorb oxygen dissolved in water through their gills. Frogs can breathe using their lungs and through their moist skin. Birds require a lot of oxygen, so they have a very complex respiratory system: their lungs end in air sacs that even penetrate into the free spaces between the bones of the skeleton. Insects have special tubes - tracheas, through which air enters the body. Respiratory systems that differ in structure are the result of adaptation of living organisms to different living conditions. However, despite the differences in structure, all these respiratory systems perform the same function - they provide oxygen to the blood, which carries it throughout the body, where it is used for chemical reactions that constantly occur in the body.

So, the supply of oxygen and the release of carbon dioxide in a plant organism is provided by stomata, in an animal - by the respiratory organs.

Metabolism and energy

Metabolism is a set of processes of absorption of substances from the environment, their transformations in the body and the removal of waste products from it.

In the body of living organisms, metabolism and energy conversion constantly occur. The basis of metabolism is synthesis processes - the formation of complex organic compounds from simple ones, which consume energy, and decomposition processes - the transformation of complex organic compounds into simple ones, in which energy is released. Energy is necessary for organisms to maintain vital functions, to ensure such processes as nutrition, respiration, growth, development, movement, reproduction, irritability.

Metabolism occurs constantly in nature. All living organisms exchange substances with the environment: they absorb nutrients and release waste products.

For living organisms, the main source of energy is sunlight. Green plants are capable of synthesizing organic compounds from inorganic ones using light energy. They directly absorb solar energy and spend it to support vital processes or store it in the form of synthesized compounds (proteins, fats, carbohydrates). The energy that plants store in organic substances during photosynthesis is released during respiration when these substances are destroyed. This ensures the life processes of the plant organism: absorption of water, opening of petals, rotation of leaves towards the light, germination of seeds.

For animals, the source of energy is ready-made organic substances that they receive from food (plant or animal origin). The breakdown of complex compounds is accompanied by the release of energy and ensures the vital processes of organisms, including the synthesis of new organic compounds. In this case, substances inherent to a given organism are synthesized, which are building materials and therefore play an important role in the processes of growth and development. The energy that is released provides movement, maintains the constant body of animals and all other life processes.

Types of reproduction of animals and plants

All organisms leave behind offspring. The ability of organisms to leave descendants and pass on some of their characteristics to them is called reproduction. Thanks to this, life on our planet has existed continuously for billions of years.

There are many known methods of reproduction of organisms, but they can all be combined into two groups - asexual and sexual.

During sexual reproduction, a new creature arises with the participation of two parent organisms. Almost all animals and plants reproduce sexually. In this case, germ cells are formed in special organs. The fusion of these cells is called fertilization. The birth of a human being begins with the fusion of male and female reproductive cells. From them one cell is formed - a zygote, from which a new organism develops.

In plants, fertilization can only occur after pollen reaches the stigma of the flower. This process is called pollination. All flowering plants reproduce sexually by producing seeds. An embryo develops inside the seed. Under favorable conditions, an adult plant develops from the embryo. This is how plants reproduce by seeds, or sexual reproduction.

In asexual reproduction, one parent provides the offspring. Many flowering plants reproduce asexually. Since in this case a new plant develops from vegetative organs - shoots, leaves, buds - this method of propagation was called vegetative.

The process of vegetative propagation is based on the ability of plants to restore a whole organism from its part. One of the common methods is propagation by cuttings. Cuttings are either stem or leaf. For example, currants are propagated by stem cuttings, and indoor uzambar violet by leaf cuttings. Vegetative propagation allows plants to quickly develop and spread to new territories.

Fungi and some plants reproduce through tiny cells called spores, which are spread by rain, wind or insects. New organisms develop from them. Reproduction of organisms by spores refers to asexual reproduction.

Regardless of the method of reproduction, living things reproduce organisms similar to themselves. Thanks to reproduction, organisms not only remain in the areas of land they have developed, but also spread, occupying new territories.

Behavior of animals and plants

The behavior of organisms is understood as their ability to change their actions and respond to the influence of internal and external factors.

Forms of behavior can be different. If you place a houseplant in a pot on a windowsill, then within a few days you will notice that its leaves have turned towards the window. Sunflower inflorescences also rotate towards the sun. Since plants are rooted in the soil, only parts of them can move. Examples of plant movements can be the curling of mimosa and sorrel leaves when touched, as well as the rotation of climbing stems of beans and peas around a support.

Animal behavior is more varied and complex because they can move and, therefore, change their living conditions. Therefore, they have very well developed organs of movement, senses and nervous regulation. The following examples of animal behavior can be given: hunting by predators or insectivorous animals, feeding chicks by adult birds, mating games, migration, that is, travel that animals carry out by land, sea, air, and the like.

All forms of animal behavior can be combined into two groups - congenital and acquired. Feeding behavior and migration are innate forms of behavior. An example of acquired behavior is learning, the process of an organism acquiring its own experience. Thus, adult birds teach chicks to find food and avoid danger.

The importance of adaptation of organisms to living conditions

The adaptation of organisms to the conditions of existence is determined not only by various forms of behavior, but also by the features of their structure and life processes that ensure the possibility of the existence of organisms in certain environmental conditions. For example, animals with protective coloring or body shape become less noticeable to enemies. In our area there are many birds and animals that change their dark summer colors to light winter ones, thus adapting to the changing colors of the environment.

Conversely, the colors and behavior of animals can be very noticeable. Thus, brightly colored poisonous (Colorado beetle, ladybug) or stinging (wasps, bees) insects “notify” of the danger of encountering them. And the threatening poses of various snakes and predators scare away enemies. Also, bright colors and specific behavior are caused, for example, by the meeting of individuals of different sexes.

Examples of adaptation to environmental conditions can be seen in organisms that live in conditions of insufficient moisture (cacti, camels), in deep soil (moles, blind men), in water (fish, algae), etc.