Molds from the genus Penicillium belong to plants that are very widespread in nature. This is a genus of fungi of the imperfect class, numbering more than 250 species. Of particular importance is the green racemose mold - penicillium aureus, as it is used by humans to produce penicillin.
The natural habitat of penicillium is soil. Penicillium can often be seen as a green or blue mold on a variety of substrates, mainly plant matter. The penicillium fungus has a similar structure to aspergillus, which is also a mold fungus. The vegetative mycelium of penicillium is branched, transparent and consists of many cells. The difference between penicillium and mucor is that its mycelium is multicellular, while that of mucor is unicellular. The hyphae of the penicillium fungus are either immersed in the substrate or located on its surface. Erect or ascending conidiophores extend from the hyphae. These formations branch in the upper section and form brushes carrying chains of single-celled colored spores - conidia. Penicillium tassels can be of several types: single-tiered, two-tiered, three-tiered and asymmetrical. In some species of penicillium, conidia form bundles called coreas. Penicillium reproduces using spores.
Many of the penicilliums have positive qualities for humans. They produce enzymes and antibiotics, which makes them widely used in the pharmaceutical and food industries. Thus, the antibacterial drug penicillin is obtained using Penicillium chrysogenum, Penicillium notatum. The production of an antibiotic occurs in several stages. First, the fungal culture is obtained on nutrient media with the addition of corn extract for better penicillin production. Penicillin is then grown using the submerged culture method in special fermenters with a capacity of several thousand liters. After penicillin is extracted from the culture liquid, it is processed with organic solvents and salt solutions to obtain the final product - the sodium or potassium salt of penicillin.
Also, molds from the genus Penicillium are widely used in cheese making, in particular, Penicillium camemberti, Penicillium Roquefort. These molds are used in the production of “marbled” cheeses, for example, “Roquefort”, “Gornzgola”, “Stiltosh”. All of the listed types of cheese have a loose structure, as well as a characteristic appearance and smell. Penicillium cultures are used at a certain stage of product manufacturing. Thus, in the production of Roquefort cheese, a selection strain of the fungus Penicillium Roquefort is used, which can develop in loosely compressed cottage cheese, as it tolerates low oxygen concentrations well and is also resistant to high salt content in an acidic environment. Penicillium secretes proteolytic and lipolytic enzymes that affect milk proteins and fats. Under the influence of mold fungi, cheese acquires oiliness, friability, and a characteristic pleasant taste and smell.
Currently, scientists are conducting further research to study the metabolic products of penicillium, so that in the future they can be used in practice in various sectors of the economy.
Penicillium rightfully takes first place in distribution among hyphomycetes. Their natural reservoir is soil, and they, being cosmopolitan in most species, unlike aspergillus, are more confined to the soils of northern latitudes.
Like Aspergillus, they are most often found in the form of mold deposits, consisting mainly of conidiophores with conidia, on a variety of substrates, mainly of plant origin.
Members of this genus were discovered at the same time as Aspergillus due to their generally similar ecology, wide distribution, and morphological similarity.
The mycelium of penicillium does not differ in general terms from the mycelium of aspergillus. It is colorless, multicellular, branching. The main difference between these two closely related genera is the structure of the conidial apparatus. In penicillids it is more diverse and consists of a brush of varying degrees of complexity in the upper part (hence its synonym “tassel”). Based on the structure of the tassel and some other characters (morphological and cultural), sections, subsections and series were established within the genus.
The simplest conidiophores in Penicillium bear at the upper end only a bundle of phialids, forming chains of conidia that develop basipetally, as in Aspergillus. Such conidiophores are called monomerticulate or monoverticillate (Fig. 1 and 2).
Rice. 1. The structure of conidiophores in Aspergillus
Rice. 2. The structure of conidiophores in penicillium
A more complex brush consists of metulae, i.e., more or less long cells located at the top of the conidiophore, and on each of them there is a bundle, or whorl, of phialids. In this case, the metulae can be either in the form of a symmetrical bunch, or in a small amount, and then one of them seems to continue the main axis of the conidiophore, while the others are not symmetrically located on it. In the first case they are called symmetrical (section Biverticillata-symmetrica), in the second - asymmetrical. Asymmetrical conidiophores can have an even more complex structure: the metulae then extend from the so-called branches. And finally, in a few species, both twigs and brooms can be arranged not in one “floor”, but in two, three or more. Then the brush turns out to be multi-story, or multi-whorled.
Details of the structure of conidiophores (smooth or spiny, colorless or colored), the sizes of their parts can be different in different series and in different species, as well as the shape, structure of the shell and the size of mature conidia. Just like Aspergillus, some Penicillium have higher sporulation - marsupial (sexual). Bursae also develop in cleistothecia, similar to cleistothecia of Aspergillus. These fruiting bodies were first depicted in the work of O. Brefeld.
It is interesting that in penicillium there is the same pattern that was noted for aspergillus, namely: the simpler the structure of the conidiophore apparatus (tassel), the more species we find cleistothecia. Thus, they are most often found in sections Monoverticillata and Biverticillata-Symmetrica. The more complex the brush, the fewer species with cleistothecia are found in this group. Thus, in the subsection Asymmetrica-Fasciculata, characterized by particularly powerful conidiophores united in coremia, there is not a single species with cleitothecium. From this we can conclude that the evolution of penicillium went in the direction of complication of the conidial apparatus, increasing production of conidia and extinction of sexual reproduction. Some thoughts can be expressed on this matter. Since penicillium, like aspergillus, has heterokaryosis and a parasexual cycle, these features represent the basis on which new forms can arise that adapt to different environmental conditions and are capable of conquering new living spaces for individuals of the species and ensuring its prosperity . In combination with the huge number of conidia that arise on a complex conidiophore (it is measured in tens of thousands), while in the bags and in the nleistothecia in general the number of spores is disproportionately smaller, the total production of these new forms can be very large. Thus, the presence of a parasexual cycle and efficient formation of conidia essentially provides fungi with the benefit that the sexual process provides to other organisms compared to asexual or vegetative reproduction.
In the colonies of many penicilliums, like aspergillus, there are sclerotia, which apparently serve to withstand unfavorable conditions.
Thus, in the morphology, ontogenesis and other features of Aspergillus and Penicillium there is a lot in common, which suggests their phylogenetic proximity. Some penicilliums from the section Monoverticillata have a greatly expanded apex of the conidiophore, reminiscent of the swelling of the conidiophore of Aspergillus, and, like Aspergillus, are found more often in southern latitudes.
Attention to penicillium increased when their ability to form the antibiotic penicillin was first discovered. Then scientists from a wide variety of specialties became involved in the study of penicillins: bacteriologists, pharmacologists, physicians, chemists, etc. This is quite understandable, since the discovery of penicillin was one of the outstanding events not only in biology, but also in a number of other fields, especially in medicine , veterinary medicine, phytopathology, where antibiotics then found the widest use. Penicillin was the first antibiotic discovered. The widespread recognition and use of penicillin played a big role in science, as it accelerated the discovery and introduction of other antibiotic substances into medical practice.
The medicinal properties of molds formed by penicillium colonies were first noted by Russian scientists V. A. Manassein and A. G. Polotebnov back in the 70s of the 19th century. They used these molds to treat skin diseases and syphilis.
In 1928 in England, Professor A. Fleming drew attention to one of the dishes with a nutrient medium on which the staphylococcus bacterium was sown. The colony of bacteria stopped growing under the influence of blue-green mold that came from the air and developed in the same cup. Fleming isolated the fungus in pure culture (it turned out to be Penicillium notatum) and demonstrated its ability to produce a bacteriostatic substance, which he called penicillin. Fleming recommended the use of this substance and noted that it could be used in medicine. However, the significance of penicillin became fully apparent only in 1941. Flory, Chain and others described methods for obtaining and purifying penicillin and the results of the first clinical trials of this drug. After this, a program of further research was outlined, which included the search for more suitable media and methods for cultivating fungi and obtaining more productive strains. It can be considered that the history of scientific selection of microorganisms began with work to increase the productivity of penicillium.
Back in 1942-1943. It was found that some strains of another species, P. Chrysogenum, also have the ability to produce large amounts of penicillin.
Penicillium chrysogenum. Photo: Carl Wirth
Conidiophores in Penicillium under a microscope. Photo: AJ Cann
Penicillin was initially produced using strains isolated from various natural sources. These strains were P. notaturn and P. chrysogenum. Then isolates that gave a higher yield of penicillin were selected, first under surface culture conditions and then under submerged culture in special fermentation tanks. Mutant Q-176 was obtained, characterized by even higher productivity, which was used for the industrial production of penicillin. Subsequently, based on this strain, even more active variants were selected. Work to obtain active strains is ongoing. Highly productive strains are obtained mainly with the help of potent factors (X-rays and ultraviolet rays, chemical mutagens).
The medicinal properties of penicillin are very diverse. It acts on pyogenic cocci, gonococci, anaerobic bacteria that cause gas gangrene, in cases of various abscesses, carbuncles, wound infections, osteomyelitis, meningitis, peritonitis, endocarditis and makes it possible to save the lives of patients when other therapeutic drugs (in particular, sulfa drugs) are powerless .
In 1946, it was possible to synthesize penicillin, which was identical to natural, biologically obtained. However, the modern penicillin industry is based on biosynthesis, since it makes it possible to mass produce a cheap drug.
Of the section Monoverticillata, whose representatives are more common in more southern regions, the most common is Penicillium frequentans. It forms widely growing velvety green colonies with a reddish-brown reverse side on the nutrient medium. Chains of conidia on one conidiophore are usually connected into long columns, clearly visible at low microscope magnification. P. frequentans produces the enzymes pectinase, used to clarify fruit juices, and proteinase. At low acidity of the environment, this fungus, like the closely related P. spinulosum, produces gluconic acid, and at higher acidity, citric acid.
Penicillin mold. Photo: Steve Jurvetson
Producers of penicillin are P. chrysogenum and P. notatum. They are found in soil and on various organic substrates. Macroscopically, their colonies are similar. They are green in color, and they, like all species of the P. chrysogenum series, are characterized by the release of a yellow exudate on the surface of the colony and the same pigment into the medium; both of these species, together with penicillin, often form ergosterol.
Penicilliums from the P. roqueforti series are very important. They live in the soil, but predominate in the group of cheeses characterized by “marbling”. This is Roquefort cheese, which originates in France; Gorgonzola cheese from Northern Italy, Stiltosh cheese from England, etc. All these cheeses are characterized by a loose structure, a specific appearance (veins and spots of bluish-green color) and a characteristic aroma. The fact is that the corresponding mushroom cultures are used at a certain point in the cheese making process. P. roqueforti and related species are able to grow in loosely compressed cottage cheese because they tolerate low oxygen content well (the mixture of gases formed in the voids of the cheese contains less than 5%). In addition, they are resistant to high salt concentrations in an acidic environment and form lipolytic and proteolytic enzymes that affect the fatty and protein components of milk. Currently, selected strains of mushrooms are used in the manufacturing process of these cheeses.
From soft French cheeses - Camembert, Brie, etc. - P. camamberti and P. caseicolum were isolated. Both of these species have been so adapted to their specific substrate for so long that they are almost indistinguishable from other sources. At the final stage of making Camembert or Brie cheeses, the curd mass is placed for ripening in a special chamber with a temperature of 13-14 ° C and a humidity of 55-60%, the air of which contains spores of the corresponding fungi. Within a week, the entire surface of the cheese is covered with a fluffy white coating of mold 1-2 mm thick. Within about ten days, the mold becomes bluish or greenish-gray in the case of P. camamberti development, or remains white in the case of predominantly P. caseicolum development. Under the influence of fungal enzymes, the mass of cheese acquires juiciness, oiliness, specific taste and aroma.
P. digitatum and P. italicum on citrus
P. digitatum produces ethylene, which causes healthy citrus fruits in the vicinity of fruits affected by this fungus to ripen more quickly.
P. italicum is a blue-green mold that causes soft rot of citrus fruit. This fungus attacks oranges and grapefruits more often than lemons, while P. digitatum grows equally well on lemons, oranges and grapefruits. With intensive development of P. italicum, the fruits quickly lose their shape and become covered with mucus spots.
Conidiophores of P. italicum are often united in a coremia, and then the mold coating becomes granular. Both mushrooms have a pleasant aromatic smell.
P. expansum is often found in soil and on various substrates (grain, bread, industrial products, etc.), but it is especially known as the cause of rapidly developing soft brown rot of apples. Losses of apples from this mushroom during storage are sometimes 85-90%. Conidiophores of this species also form koremia. Masses of its spores present in the air can cause allergic diseases.
Some types of coremic penicillium cause great harm to floriculture. R. cormutbiferum is isolated from the bulbs of tulips in Holland, hyacinths and daffodils in Denmark. The pathogenicity of P. gladioli for gladioli bulbs and, apparently, for other plants with bulbs or fleshy roots has also been established.
Some penicilliums of the section Asymmetrica (P. nigricans) produce the antifungal antibiotic griseofulvin, which has shown good results in the fight against some plant diseases. It can be used to combat fungi that cause diseases of the skin and hair follicles in humans and animals.
Apparently, representatives of the section Asymmetrica are the most prosperous in natural conditions. They have a wider ecological amplitude than other penicilliums, tolerate low temperatures better than others (P. puberulum, for example, can form mold deposits on meat in refrigerators) and have a relatively lower oxygen content. Many of them are found in the soil not only in the surface layers, but also at considerable depth, especially coremial forms. For some species, such as P. chrysogenum, very wide temperature limits have been established (from -4 to +33 °C).
Having a wide range of enzymes, penicilliums colonize various substrates and take an active part in the aerobic destruction of plant residues.
Penicillus is a member of the Trichocomaceae family. This is a mold type of mushroom. Penicillium is the source of the first antibiotic, penicillin, which was invented by Alexander Fleming.
The Latin name of the mushroom is Penicillium.
Most often, this fungus can be seen in the form of a blue or green coating on various substances, for example, on plants. The penicillium fungus is similar in appearance to aspergillus, which is also a mold.
The vegetative mycelium is transparent, branching, consisting of a large number of cells. Penicillium mycelium is multicellular. Hyphae can be on the surface of the substrate or immersed in it.
Elevating conidiophores extend from the hyphae. These formations form brushes, and on them single-celled chains of spores - conidia - are formed. Tassels come in different types: asymmetrical, single-tier, two-tier and three-tier. In certain species of penicillium, conidia form bundles called coreemia. These fungi reproduce using spores.
Places of formation of penicillium.
The habitat of penicillium is soil. These fungi take part in the decomposition of tissues of not only plant but also animal organisms. This mold grows on food. As a result of its vital activity, food spoils.
Discovery of penicillium.
A military doctor named Ernest Duchesne in 1897 in Lyon noticed how Arab grooms used mold from damp saddles to treat wounds on the backs of horses that they received as a result of friction.
Duchesne researched this mold and conducted tests on guinea pigs, during which he found that it was active against the bacterium Escherichia coli. Thus, for the first time, a clinical trial of a substance was carried out, which later became known throughout the world under the name penicillin.
The doctor outlined his research in his doctoral dissertation and was going to continue work in this direction, but the Pasteur Institute in Paris did not confirm receipt of the document, apparently due to Duchenne’s young age, who was only 23 years old. The discoverer received well-deserved fame only after his death. This happened in 1949, 4 years after Alexander Fleming received the Nobel Prize for his discovery of the antibiotic effect of penicillium.
How did the term come about?
The term "penicillium" was coined by Fleming in 1929. The scientist noticed the antibacterial properties of mold, which he gave the name Penicillium rubrum. But it turned out that this definition was incorrect. Many years later, Charles Thom corrected his research and named the mushroom correctly - Penicillum notatum. This mold was originally called Penicillium because its spore-bearing legs looked like tiny brushes under a microscope.
Use of penicillium.
These mushrooms are undoubtedly beneficial for humans, as they produce enzymes and antibiotics. They are used in the pharmaceutical and food industries. The drug penicillin is manufactured in several stages. First, the fungal culture is propagated on nutrient media by adding corn extract. Then the penicillin is grown in special culture liquids. After this, it is treated with organic solvents and the final product is obtained - the potassium or sodium salt of penicillin.
And the molds Penicillium Roquefort and Penicillium camemberti are widely used in cheese making. With their help, “marble cheeses” are produced, for example, “Stiltosh”, “Roquefort”, “Gornzgola”. These cheeses have a loose structure and a characteristic smell. Penicillium culture is used at one of the stages of cheese making. For example, in the process of making Roquefort cheese, a strain of the fungus Penicillium Roquefort is used. This fungus develops in cottage cheese. It tolerates low concentrations of oxygen well and is resistant to acids and salts.
Penicillium secretes special enzymes, under the influence of which cheeses become loose, oily, and acquire a special smell and taste.
Penicilliums are still being subjected to various studies today in order to be able to use them in various sectors of the economy in the future.
One way or another, everyone is familiar with mushrooms. There are many fans of “quiet hunting” among us, who appreciate leisurely walks through the forest, relieving the stress of city life. Collected mushrooms are used to prepare a variety of delicious dishes that invariably decorate friendly feasts, and when dried, salted or pickled, they are stored for a long time. But few people know how vast the kingdom of mushrooms is and how closely our lives are connected with it. We will talk about this in our articles.
The meaning of mushrooms
In everyday life, only the fruiting bodies of cap mushrooms are called mushrooms, and few people remember that the world of mushrooms includes a huge number of other species of organisms.
Currently, there are up to 100 thousand species of mushrooms. Mushrooms are very diverse in size, appearance and other characteristics. In different states and phases of their development, they are present everywhere: in soil, air, water, inside other living organisms and on their surface. The role of mushrooms in our diet is much more varied than most people suspect, and, unfortunately, it is not always beneficial.
Fungi are heterotrophic organisms and require ready-made organic substances for their existence. Enzymes secreted by fungi act on the substrate and contribute to its partial digestion outside the fungal cell. Such semi-digested material is easily absorbed by the entire surface of the cell.
The role of mushrooms in the cycle of substances in nature is great. As decomposers, i.e. Destroyers of organic matter, they mineralize organic matter, making carbon dioxide, nitrogen compounds, phosphorus, potassium and other elements of mineral nutrition again available for use by other organisms. Therefore, saprophytic fungi, which destroy dead organic matter, constitute an important element of diverse plant communities.
However, in addition to mushrooms that are content with forest litter and other plant debris, there are many whose activities cause significant harm. Some of them like our food supplies - they spoil them, and sometimes make them poisonous. Fungi destroy wooden buildings and many materials and products made from them. For example, fungi can spoil fabrics, leather, paper, cardboard, paints and varnishes, damaging books and paintings, and sometimes causing irreparable damage to libraries and museums. The list of materials affected by fungi includes lubricating oils and other petroleum products, cable and wire insulation, wax, and photographic film. There are types of fungi that can settle on metal products and lenses of optical instruments, damaging them in the process of their life activity. The damage caused by mushrooms is especially great in humid and warm climates. For example, during the Second World War, less than 50% of military cargo sent to the tropics and subtropics arrived there usable without additional repair work.
It has long been noticed that many mushrooms in the forest grow near certain trees - this is reflected in their names: boletus, boletus, etc. This choice of habitat is due to the fact that they closely cooperate with higher plants, forming mycorrhiza (“fungal root”) with their roots. On the other hand, seedlings of many species of forest trees grow poorly and even die if the soil does not contain the mycorrhiza-forming fungi they need. By forming mycorrhiza with plants, fungi supply the plants with mineral nutrition elements, primarily phosphorus, the compounds of which are inaccessible in the soil. Plants, in turn, share the products of photosynthesis with fungi.
Mycorrhiza is characteristic of most higher plants. The orchid family shows a particularly strong attachment to mushrooms: symbiosis with fungi is mandatory for all species of this family - orchid seeds must be infected with the fungus during germination, otherwise the development of orchids stops. Until such a close connection between orchids and fungal flora was discovered, tropical species of orchids could not be introduced into greenhouse culture in Europe.
The biochemical properties of fungi are widely used, primarily yeast, which break down sugar to form ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide. Alcoholic fermentation underlies a number of food industries - bakery, winemaking, brewing, as well as the production of technical alcohol from waste from the pulp and paper industry. Some types of fungi synthesize antibiotics, the first of which was penicillin. Fungi from the genera Penicillium and Aspergillus have found use in the production of not only antibiotics, but also some organic acids and enzymes. Transplant operations for the heart and other organs began to produce encouraging results in the early 1980s, when cyclosporine, isolated from a soil fungus, began to be used: this substance suppresses rejection reactions without producing the side effects characteristic of previously used drugs.
The structure and reproduction of mushrooms
In most fungi, the vegetative body is a mycelium (mycelium), consisting of thin, several microns thick, branching filaments-hyphae with apical growth and lateral branching. The mycelium penetrates the substrate and absorbs nutrients from it over its entire surface ( substrate mycelium). The mycelium can also be located on the surface of the substrate and rise above it ( surface and air mycelium) - then it can be seen with the naked eye or with a magnifying glass as a white or colored loose mesh, fluffy (sometimes cotton wool-like) coating or film. Reproductive organs are usually formed on aerial mycelium.
Distinguish noncellular mycelium, devoid of partitions and representing, as it were, one giant cell with a large number of nuclei, and cellular mycelium, divided by septa into individual cells containing one, two or many nuclei.
To be continued
Aspergillus (aspergillus)- fungi of this genus have unicellular, unbranched conidiophores. The apices of the conidiophores are more or less swollen and bear on their surface sterigmata arranged in one or two tiers with a chain of conidia. Conidia most often have a round shape and different colors (green, yellow, brown). The conidiophore is similar in appearance to a mature dandelion. Higher genus mold mushrooms, which can cause diseases in humans and animals (aspergillosis).
Aerobic microorganisms, grow well on various substrates. They form flat fluffy colonies, initially white, and then, depending on the species, they take on different colors associated with fungal metabolites and sporulation. Mycelium The mushroom is very strong, with partitions characteristic of higher mushrooms.
Aspergillus spreads disputes, formed asexually, which is typical for the entire class in general. In the same time Aspergillus fumigatus can reproduce sexually.
Widely distributed in nature, very resistant to environmental influences. Black " mold» on the walls of damp rooms - this is mainly Aspergillus niger in the fruiting phase.
In rare cases, some mushrooms of the genus Aspergillus may cause a disease called aspergillosis. Aspergillosis is characteristic mainly of individuals with various immunodeficiencies. The fungus enters through the respiratory tract and mouth and can infect respiratory system, central nervous system, digestive tract, skin, sensory organs and reproductive system. In case of damage to the respiratory system, there may be pulmonary aspergillosis. Aspergillus meningitis or encephalitis in most cases it ends in death. Fungal infections are also common spleen, kidney and bones by Aspergillus, but most of them are caused by secondary infection.
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Penicillium (penicillium)- in fungi of this genus, conidiophores are multicellular, branching. At the ends of the branches of the conidiophore there are sterigmata with chains of conidia. Conidia can be green, blue, gray-green or colorless. The upper part of the conidiophore has the appearance of a brush of varying degrees of complexity, hence the name of the fungus penicillium (tassel). mold, which forms on food products and consequently spoils them. Penicillium notatum , one of the species of this genus, is the source of the first in history antibiotic penicillin, invented Alexander Flemming.
In 1897, a young military doctor from Lyon named Ernest Duchesne made a “discovery” while observing how Arab grooms used mold from still damp saddles to treat wounds on the backs of horses rubbed by those same saddles. Duchesne carefully examined the mold taken and identified it as Penicillium glaucum , tried it on guinea pigs for treatment typhus and discovered its destructive effect on bacteria Escherichia coli . This was the first ever clinical trial of what would soon become a world-famous penicillium.
The young man presented the results of his research in the form of a doctoral dissertation, insistently proposing to continue work in this area, but the Parisian Pasteur Institute did not even bother to confirm receipt of the document - apparently because Duchess was only twenty-three years old.
Well-deserved fame came to Duchess after his death, in 1949, five years after Sir Alexander Flemming was awarded the Nobel Prize for the discovery (for the third time) of the antibiotic effect of penicillium.
Penicillium's natural habitat is soil. Penicillium can often be seen as a green or blue mold on a variety of substrates, mainly plant ones. The penicillium mushroom has a similar structure to aspergillus, also related to mold fungi. The vegetative mycelium of penicillium is branched, transparent and consists of many cells. The difference between penicillium and mukora is that its mycelium is multicellular, whereas that of mukora- unicellular. The hyphae of the penicillium fungus are either immersed in the substrate or located on its surface. The hyphae give off erect or ascending conidiophores. These formations branch in the upper section and form brushes carrying chains of single-celled colored spores - conidium. Penicillium brushes can be of several types: single-tiered, two-tiered, three-tiered and asymmetrical. In some species, penicillium conidiumconidia form bundles - koreamy. Penicillium reproduces using spores.
The term "penicillium" was coined by Flemming in 1929. By luck, which was the result of a combination of circumstances, the scientist drew attention to the antibacterial properties of mold, which he defined as Penicillium rubrum . As it turned out, Flemming's definition was incorrect. Only many years later did Charles Tom correct his assessment and give the fungus the correct name - Penicillium notatum .
This mold was originally called Penicillium because, under a microscope, its spore-bearing legs looked like tiny brushes.
Trichoderma (trichoderma)- conidiophores are highly branched; conidia are pale green or green, ovoid (sometimes elliptical). Found on polymer materials.
Trichodermin- biological fungicide to protect plants from plant pathogens that cause diseases such as alternaria, anthracnose, ascochyta, white rot, verticillium, pythiosis, rhizoctonia, gray mold, late blight, fomoz, etc.
Alternaria (alternaria) characterized by the presence of multicellular dark-colored conidia of a club-shaped elongated shape, sitting in chains or singly on poorly developed conidiophores. Different kinds Alternaria widely distributed in soil and plant debris. These fungi damage a wide range of polymer materials of various chemical compositions, covering them with black spots. Some Alternaria species actively destroy cellulose.
It turned out that Alternaria nightshade(A. solani) different conditions are required for the formation of conidiophores on the mycelium and the formation of conidia. Humidity and light are the main factors contributing to the appearance of conidiophores. In order for conidia to begin to form on conidiophores, low temperature and darkness are needed. Consequently, the influence of weather conditions can accelerate or slow down the transition of the fungus from one phase of development to another and accelerate or slow down the life cycle of the pathogen, i.e., affect the development of the disease caused by Alternaria.
A person, knowing all the phases of development of a pathogenic fungus and the conditions conducive to the passage of these phases, can, by influencing the fungus at a certain period, influence the course of the disease.
Knowledge of all phases of fungal development also makes it possible to predict the degree of development of the disease in different climatic conditions and combat it. The development of epiphytoty depends on the duration of successive periods.
Alternaria are widely represented in nature. Many of them are saprophytes and develop on any organic substrate. Alternaria reservoirs are dying plants and plant debris from which the fungus enters the soil. Along with other fungi, Alternaria takes part in the decomposition and mineralization of plant residues. This is facilitated by a huge complex of enzymes found in saprophytic Alternarias. Saprophytic species of Alternaria, which have a highly active polygalacturonase, cause softening of cucumbers during salting, decompose the glucoside rutin, which is contained in the peel of apple fruits, leaves of tea, tobacco and other plants, giving them a yellow-orange color. The rich enzyme apparatus of the fungus provides a wide range of adaptability and the ability to exist in fairly diverse conditions. This is also favored by the easy spread of spores by wind. Alternaria spores, sometimes even connected in chains, are found in air masses wherever there are plants.
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Cladosporium (cladosporium) has weakly branching conidiophores bearing chains of conidia at the ends. Conidia come in various shapes (round, oval, cylindrical, etc.) and sizes. The mycelium, conidiophores and conidia are olive green. These mushrooms are characterized by the fact that they release a dark pigment into the environment.
The most numerous and widely represented in this genus are saprophytic species - olive green molds. They are often found on dying plants and on all kinds of plant debris, playing a positive role in some cases, and a negative role in others. Cladosporium herbaceous(C. herbarum) and other saprophytic species often develop (especially after wet seasons) on grains of cereals and cause blackening of the grain, and once in storage, it spoils. If cereals overwinter under snow (for example, wheat, rye, millet), then the Cladosporium mycelium penetrates the grain and makes it toxic to humans and animals. Many fungi of the genus appear first on dying plants, and then, once in storage, they cause damage to hay even in conditions of slightly increased humidity.
Cladosporium colonizes not only dead plant material. It is quite common on healthy plants as a permanent component of the epiphytic microbial flora of mature plant leaves. Determined that Cladosporium herbaceous, Cladosporium macrosporus(C. macrocarpum) and others are found epiphytically on the leaves of various cereals, tree species, vegetable and berry crops, on the leaves of sugar cane and many other plants, being there in an active state, vegetating and reproducing.
Cladosporium lives in the soil mainly on plant debris. Many of its species are found in peats and in the rhizosphere of plants. Cladosporium grass and other fungi of this genus abound in the forest litter, participating in its decomposition. Cladosporium spores were found in sedimentary rocks at a depth of 18-1127 m in the ocean, in amber and on wood in tertiary deposits, which indicates the significant antiquity of this genus. Due to the wide distribution of Cladosporium species on plants and in soil, a large number of its spores are in the air. There are especially many of them in the summer, during the growing season of plants (more than 40% of all fungal spores found in the air). And in tropical air masses the number of spores reaches 82.3%.
Due to the presence of a large number of Cladosporium spores in the air, the frequent occurrence of species of this genus on a wide variety of substrates, where these fungi can receive at least a small amount of nutrients, is not surprising. They develop on liquid fuels, lubricants, polyvinyl chloride coatings of industrial products in countries with a tropical climate, on paintings, paper, wood, and on the sporulation of some basidiomycetes and marsupial fungi. They grow well in cold temperatures and are often found on meat products, butter, packaged vegetables and fruits in cold storage. Under favorable conditions, Cladosporium multiplies quickly, abundantly populating the substrate, and causes significant harm. About 300 species of Cladosporium have been described.
Bibliography:
Asonov N.R. / Microbiology / M.: Kolos, 1997, 348 p.
Skorodumov D.I.; Rodionova V.B.; Kostenko T.S. /Workshop on veterinary microbiology and immunology/ M.: 2008, 224 p.
Electronic resources:
http://ru.wikipedia.org
http://dic.academic.ru
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