SAMPLE QUESTIONS FOR THE FINAL TEST IN THE PSYCHOLOGY COURSE
MODULE I
1. Man is the only creature capable of:
1. convey information about past and future events
2. use tools
3. live in communities
4. all answers are correct
2. Scientific method:
1. rationalistic
2. consists mainly of testing hypotheses
3. subjective
4. all answers are correct
3. The first psychological laboratory was created:
1. Wilhelm Wundt
2. in 1732
3. to study the functions of consciousness
4. all answers are correct
4. The S-R scheme emphasizes:
1. objective description of behavior
2. the uselessness of the concept of consciousness
3. correspondence between the response and the given stimulus
4. all answers are correct
5. Educational psychologist:
1. can provide psychological support to the student
2. conducts diagnostic tests and surveys
3. strives to introduce effective teaching methods
4. all answers are correct
6. The study of connections between the activity of the nervous system and behavior is mainly carried out by:
1. animal psychology
2. parapsychology
3. psychopharmacology
4. psychophysiology
7. Publication of a message about the results of the experiment:
1. necessary only if convincing results are obtained
2. must not contain a description of the method used
3. should not raise new questions
4. all answers are wrong
8. Choose words that denote mental phenomena:
Tears, nervous process, thinking, memory, sleep, laughter, running,
information, breath, will, fear, love, faith, knowledge, sensation,
heartbeat, instinct, brain biocurrents, analyzer, hearing, mind, perception,
mood, interest, pain, sympathy, envy, irritation,
sensitivity.
9. Divide this list into two groups of concepts characterizing material and ideal phenomena:
Forgetting, stimulation of the cerebral cortex, sensation, pride,
remembering, thinking, happiness, grief, judgment, inhibition of the nervous
impulse, instinct, defensive reflex, physiological processes
brain, receptor, aging of the body, heredity, genes,
subjective, cerebral hemispheres, mental process, book.
10. Build a series from these concepts so that each previous concept is generic (more general) in relation to the next one:
Psyche, knowledge, reflection, consciousness, psychological science, general
psychology.
11. From the words indicated in brackets, select those that are
to this word in the same relation as in the given example:
a) Matter – ... (nature, substance, reflection, action).
Sample: brain - psyche.
b) Nervous process – ... (reflex, reflection, objective,
material, mental).
Sample: consciousness is subjective.
c) Consciousness – ... (physiological, real, ideal, active).
Sample: the brain is material.
d) Mental – ... (active, derivative, objective).
Sample: physical is primary.
12. From these concepts, construct several series so that each previous concept is generic (more general) in relation to the subsequent one in a specific series:
Consciousness, reflection, psyche, information, thought, irritability,
biological reflection, instinct, tropisms, concept.
13. Our perception of the world is connected:
1. with the culture to which we belong
2. with practice
3. with experience
4. with our individual characteristics
5. All answers are correct
14. Sensitivity threshold:
1. represents the sensitivity limit of the receptor
2. determined genetically
3. may change with age
4. all answers are correct
15. Binocular vision:
1. the only thing that allows you to perceive depth
2. ineffective at a distance of more than 15 meters
3. can be replaced by monocular signs
4. all answers are correct
16. According to V. Wundt, the differences between sensations and feelings are due to the fact that:
1. feelings relate to the subject
2. more sensations
3. sensations are simple, but feelings are complex
Answers to tests
13 – 4, 14 – 4, 15 – 3, 16 – 1.
17. When solving a problem, the preparation stage:
1. This is the first step in the solution process
2. may take several days
3. allows you to collect all the information related to the problem
4. all answers are correct
18. When we find a solution at random, it is:
1. result of random search
2. trial and error strategy
3. often leads to unintended consequences
4. all answers are correct
19. According to J. Piaget, the development of thinking is mainly related to:
1. with speech development
2. with the interaction of the body and the environment
3. with the fading of the assimilation process
4. all answers are wrong
20. According to behaviorists:
1. thought is internal dialogue
2. speech is a thought expressed out loud
3. thoughts are always accompanied by implicit movements
4. all answers are correct
MODULE II
The length of a person's childhood depends on...
a) the speed of its biological maturation;
b) Family socio-economic status;
c) the level of education he received;
G) level of development of the society in which he lives.
2. The end of childhood in human society is determined by...
A) physiological maturation of the body;
B) a person’s completion of his education;
IN) the acquisition by an individual of the ability to perform the functions of a member of society;
D) achievement of maturity of the “I”.
3. L.S. Vygotsky proposed these criteria for the periodization of childhood...
A) neoplasms, the leading type of activity;
B) neoplasms, dynamics of transition from one period to another;
C) the dynamics of the transition from one period to another, the social situation of development;
G) neoplasms, social development situation.
4. The idea of mental development occurring through adaptation (adaptation) of an individual to the surrounding social environment belongs to...
A) Z. Freud;
B) J. Piaget;
B) E. Erickson;
D) L.S. Vygotsky.
5. Among the main neoplasms of the infancy period...
A) first social smile;
B) crawling;
IN) act of grasping;
D) ability to learn.
6. In the first half of a child’s life, the development of sensory systems...
A) advances the development of the motor system;
B) lags behind the development of the motor system;
C) and the development of the motor system proceeds synchronously;
D) lags behind both the development of the motor system and the speech development of the infant.
7. The greatest developmental effect for a young child is...
A) unformed objects for play that allow for imagination;
B) real or reduced adult implements;
In computer games;
D) toys.
8. The period of early childhood is a sensitive period for...
A) mastering moral standards;
B) development of creative thinking;
B) development of arbitrariness;
G) speech development.
One of the main mechanisms of a child’s mental development after three years of age is
B) visual-figurative;
B) abstract-logical;
D) verbal-conceptual.
13. The leading activity of adolescence is D.B. Elkonin believed...
A) educational activities;
B) intimate and personal communication with peers;
B) educational and professional activities;
D) socially useful activities.
14. One of the emerging features of a teenager’s thinking is...
A) the ability to think about possibilities that are not immediately given;
B) mastering the principle of conservation (volume, quantity, etc.);
C) the ability to solve problems in a visual and figurative manner;
D) the ability to coordinate 2 points of view simultaneously.
Childhood is a term denoting the initial period of ontogenesis, from birth to adolescence. Childhood covers infancy, early childhood, preschool age and primary school age, i.e. lasts from birth to 11 years.
Surely, for some, childhood is associated with carelessness, carefreeness, games, pranks, study, while for others, childhood is a time of active development, change and learning. In fact, childhood is a period of paradoxes and contradictions, without which there can be no development. So, what characterizes this period?
It has been noticed that the higher a living creature stands in the ranks of animals, the longer its childhood lasts and the more helpless this creature is at birth. Undoubtedly, man is the most perfect creature in nature. This is confirmed by its physical structure, organization of the nervous system, types of activity and methods of its regulation. However, when a person is born, he is endowed with only the most basic mechanisms for maintaining life. He is helpless and cannot fend for himself; he requires care, which is carried out for a long time. This is one of the paradoxes of nature that predetermines the history of childhood.
Many scientists have paid attention to the history of childhood. An outstanding specialist in the field of child and educational psychology D.B. Elkonin wrote: “Throughout all human history, the starting point of child development has remained unchanged. The child interacts with a certain ideal form, that is, with the level of cultural development achieved by society in which he was born. This ideal form develops all the time, and develops spasmodically, that is, it changes qualitatively” (D.B. Elkonin, 1995). His words are confirmed by the fact that people of different eras are not alike. Consequently, the development of the psyche in ontogenesis must also change radically.
Time does not stand still. With the development of scientific and technological progress, the life of society becomes more complicated and the child’s position in it changes accordingly. Previously, children mastered primitive tools by helping their parents cultivate the land; they learned this from adults by watching them and repeating their actions. With the development of scientific and technological progress and the emergence of new production relations, tools became more complex, and to master them, observing adults alone was not enough. Therefore, it became necessary to first study the process of mastering these tools and only then begin to use them. Consequently, the new stage of learning was due to the complexity of tools.
D.B. Elkonin connected the periods of child development with the periodization of the development of society (Table 1)
Table 1
Periods of childhood development according to D.B. Elkonin
Perhaps in the near future it will become mandatory for everyone to have a higher education for the development of society. This is primarily due to the development of computer technology. But it is impossible to endlessly expand the age limits of childhood, so pedagogical and developmental psychology will most likely be faced with the task of improving teaching methods in order to reduce the time to master the school curriculum.
It turns out that the duration of childhood is directly dependent on the level of material and spiritual development of society and even its individual layers. In many ways, the length of childhood also depends on the material well-being of the family: the poorer the family, the earlier children begin to work.
Table 1
End of table. 1
Developmental psychology is a branch of psychological science that studies the patterns of stages of mental development and personality formation throughout human ontogenesis from birth to old age.
The subject of developmental psychology is the age-related dynamics of the human psyche, the ontogenesis of mental processes and personality traits of a developing person, patterns of development of mental processes.
Developmental psychology studies age-related characteristics of mental processes, age-related opportunities for acquiring knowledge, leading factors in personality development, age-related changes, etc.
Age-related changes are divided into evolutionary, revolutionary and situational. Evolutionary changes include quantitative and qualitative transformations that occur in the human psyche during the transition from one age group to another. Such changes occur slowly but thoroughly, and cover significant periods of life, from several months (for infants) to several years (for older children). They are caused by the following factors: a) biological maturation and psychophysiological state of the child’s body; b) its place in the system of social relations; c) level of intellectual and personal development.
Revolutionary changes are carried out quickly, in a short period of time, they are deeper than evolutionary ones. These changes occur at the time of a crisis of age-related development, which occurs at the boundary of ages between relatively calm periods of evolutionary changes in the psyche and behavior.
Situational changes are associated with the impact of a specific social situation on the child’s psyche. These changes reflect the processes occurring in the child’s psyche and behavior under the influence of training and upbringing.
Age-related evolutionary and revolutionary changes in the psyche and behavior are stable, irreversible, and do not require systematic reinforcement. They transform the psychology of a person as an individual. Situational changes are unstable, reversible and require reinforcement in subsequent exercises. Such changes are aimed at transforming particular forms of behavior, knowledge, skills and abilities.
The theoretical task of developmental psychology is to study the patterns of mental development in ontogenesis, to establish periods of development and the reasons for the transition from one period to another, to determine the possibilities of development, as well as age-related characteristics of mental processes, age-related opportunities for acquiring knowledge, leading factors in personality development, etc.
The object of study is a child, a teenager, a young man, an adult, an elderly person.
Child psychology as a science about the mental development of a child originated at the end of the 19th century. This began with the book of the German Darwinist scientist W. Preyer “The Soul of a Child” (St. Petersburg, 1891). In it, Preyer described the results of daily observations of his daughter’s development, paying attention to the development of sensory organs, motor skills, will, reason and language. Preyer's merit lies in the fact that he studied how a child develops in the earliest years of life, and introduced into child psychology a method of objective observation, developed by analogy with the methods of the natural sciences. He was the first to make the transition from an introspective study of the child’s psyche to an objective one.
The objective conditions for the development of child psychology that emerged at the end of the 19th century include, first of all, the rapid development of industry and, accordingly, a qualitatively new level of social life. This entailed the need to reconsider approaches to raising and educating children. Parents and teachers stopped considering physical punishment an effective method of education - more democratic families and teachers appeared. The task of understanding the child has become one of the priorities. In addition, scientists have come to the conclusion that only through studying the psychology of a child is the path to understanding what the psychology of an adult is.
Like any field of knowledge, child psychology began with the collection and accumulation of information. Scientists simply described the manifestations and further development of mental processes. The accumulated knowledge required systematization and analysis, namely:
Searching for relationships between individual mental processes;
Understanding the internal logic of holistic mental development;
Determining the sequence of development stages;
Research into the causes and ways of transition from one stage to another.
In child psychology, knowledge of related sciences began to be used: genetic psychology, which studies the emergence of individual mental functions in an adult and a child in history and ontogenesis, and educational psychology. Increasing attention has been paid to the psychology of learning. The outstanding Russian teacher, founder of scientific pedagogy in Russia K.D. made his contribution to the development of child psychology. Ushinsky (1824–1870). In his work “Man as a Subject of Education,” he wrote, addressing teachers: “Study the laws of those mental phenomena that you want to control, and act in accordance with these laws and the circumstances to which you want to apply them.”
The development of developmental psychology was facilitated by the evolutionary ideas of the English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809–1882), which served as the basis for understanding the reflex nature of mental factors. The Russian physiologist I.M. also dealt with this problem. Sechenov (1829–1905). In his classic work “Reflexes of the Brain” (1866), he gave a complete scientific substantiation of the reflex theory.
At the beginning of the 20th century, methods of experimental research into the mental development of children began to be introduced into practice: testing, the use of measuring scales, etc. Child psychology is becoming a normative discipline that describes the achievements of a child in the development process.
Over time, scientists came to the conclusion that it was necessary to distinguish stages of personality development in ontogenesis. This problem was dealt with by K. Buhler, Z. Freud, J. Piaget, E. Erikson, P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky and others. They tried to comprehend the patterns of changing periods of development and analyze the cause-and-effect relationships of the mental development of children. All these studies have given rise to many theories of personality development, among which we can name, for example, the theory of the three stages of child development (K. Bühler), the psychoanalytic concept (S. Freud), and the cognitive theory (J. Piaget).
Developmental psychology rose to a new level with the introduction of the formative experiment method developed by the domestic psychologist L.S. Vygotsky (1896–1934). This method made it possible to determine the patterns of development of mental functions. Its use has also led to a number of theories of personality development. Let's look at some of them.
Cultural-historical concept of L.S. Vygotsky. The scientist argued that the interpsychic becomes intrapsychic. The emergence and development of higher mental functions is associated with the use of signs by two people in the process of their communication. Otherwise, the sign cannot become a means of individual mental activity.
Theory of activity by A.N. Leontyev. He believed that activity first appears as a conscious action, then as an operation, and only then, as it is formed, becomes a function.
The theory of the formation of mental actions P.Ya. Galperin. In his opinion, the formation of mental functions occurs on the basis of an objective action: it begins with the material execution of the action, and ends with mental activity, affecting the speech function.
The concept of educational activities - research by D.B. Elkonin and V.V. Davydov, in which a strategy for personality formation was developed not in laboratory conditions, but in real life - through the creation of experimental schools.
The theory of “initial humanization” by I.A. Sokolyansky and A.I. Meshcheryakov, in which the initial stages of the formation of the psyche in deaf-blind children are noted.
The set of research methods used in developmental psychology consists of several blocks of techniques borrowed from general, differential and social psychology.
Methods for studying cognitive processes and a child’s personality are taken from general psychology. They are adapted to the child's age and explore perception, attention, memory, imagination, thinking and speech. Using these methods, it is possible to obtain information about the age-related characteristics of children’s cognitive processes and the transformations of these processes as the child grows up, i.e., about the specifics of the transition from one age group to another.
Methods for studying individual and age differences in children are borrowed from differential psychology. The so-called “twin method”, which studies the similarities and differences between homozygous and heterozygous twins, is very popular. Based on the data obtained, conclusions are drawn about the organic (genotypic) and environmental conditioning of the child’s psyche and behavior.
Social psychology has provided developmental psychology with methods that allow it to study interpersonal relationships in various children's groups, as well as relationships between children and adults. These methods include: observation, survey, conversation, experiment, cross-sectional method, testing, questioning, analysis of activity products. All these methods are also adapted to the age of the child. Let's look at them in more detail.
Observation- the main method when working with children (especially preschool age), since tests, experiments, surveys are difficult to study children's behavior. It is necessary to begin observation by setting a goal, drawing up an observation program, and developing an action plan. 10 stiy. The purpose of observation is to determine why it is being carried out and what results can be expected as a result.
In order to obtain reliable results, monitoring must be carried out regularly. This is due to the fact that children grow very quickly and the changes that occur in the child’s behavior and psyche are also fleeting. For example, a baby's behavior changes before our eyes, so by missing one month, the researcher is deprived of the opportunity to obtain valuable data about his development during this period.
The younger the child, the shorter the interval between observations should be. During the period from birth to 2–3 months, the child should be monitored daily; at the age of 2–3 months to 1 year – weekly; from 1 year to 3 years – monthly; from 3 to 6–7 years – once every six months; at primary school age - once a year, etc.
The observation method when working with children is more effective than others, on the one hand, because they behave more directly and do not play social roles characteristic of adults. On the other hand, children (especially preschoolers) do not have sufficiently stable attention and can often be distracted from the task at hand. Therefore, whenever possible, covert observation should be carried out so that the children do not see the observer.
Survey can be oral and written. When using this method, the following difficulties may arise. Children understand the question asked to them in their own way, that is, they put a different meaning into it than an adult. This happens because the system of concepts in children is significantly different from the one used by adults. This phenomenon is also observed in adolescents. Therefore, before getting an answer to the question asked, you need to make sure that the child understands it correctly by explaining and discussing inaccuracies, and only after that interpret the answers received.
Experiment is one of the most reliable methods of obtaining information about the behavior and psychology of a child. The essence of the experiment is that in the process of research, mental processes of interest to the researcher are evoked in the child and conditions are created that are necessary and sufficient for the manifestation of these processes.
A child, entering an experimental play situation, behaves directly, responding emotionally to the proposed situations, and does not play any social roles. This makes it possible to obtain its true reactions to the influencing stimuli. The results are most reliable if the experiment is carried out in the form of a game. At the same time, it is important that the child’s immediate interests and needs are expressed in the game, otherwise he will not be able to fully demonstrate his intellectual abilities and necessary psychological qualities. In addition, when participating in an experiment, a child acts momentarily and spontaneously, so throughout the entire experiment it is necessary to maintain his interest in the event.
Slices- another research method in developmental psychology. They are divided into transverse and longitudinal (longitudinal).
The essence of the cross-sectional method is that in a group of children (a class, several classes, children of different ages, but studying in the same program), some parameter (for example, intellectual level) is studied using certain techniques. The advantage of this method is that in a short time it is possible to obtain statistical data on age-related differences in mental processes, to establish how age, gender or other factor influences the main trends of mental development. The disadvantage of the method is that when studying children of different ages, it is impossible to obtain information about the development process itself, its nature and driving forces.
When using the method of longitudinal (longitudinal) sections, the development of a group of the same children is traced over a long period of time. This method allows us to establish qualitative changes in the development of mental processes and the child’s personality and identify the causes of these changes, as well as study development trends and minor changes that cannot be covered by cross-sections. The disadvantage of the method is that the results obtained are based on studying the behavior of a small group of children, so it seems incorrect to extend such data to a large number of children.
Testing allows you to identify the level of intellectual abilities and personal qualities of the child. It is necessary to maintain children's interest in this method in ways that are attractive to them, for example, encouragement or some kind of reward. When testing children, the same tests are used as for adults, but adapted for each age, for example, the children's version of the Cattell test, Wechsler test, etc.
Conversation- this is obtaining information about the child through direct communication with him: the child is asked targeted questions and expected answers to them. This method is empirical. An important condition for the effectiveness of a conversation is a favorable atmosphere, goodwill, and tact. Questions must be prepared in advance and the answers recorded, if possible without attracting the attention of the subject.
Questioning is a method of obtaining information about a person based on his answers to pre-prepared questions. Questionnaires can be oral, written, individual or group.
Analysis of activity products is a method of studying a person through the analysis of the products of his activity: drawings, blueprints, musical works, essays, school notebooks, personal diaries, etc. Thanks to this method, you can obtain information about the child’s inner world, his attitude to the surrounding reality and people, about peculiarities of his perception and other aspects of the psyche. This method is based on the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity, according to which the child’s psyche is not only formed, but also manifested in activity. By drawing or creating something, a child provides researchers with the opportunity to reveal aspects of his psyche that would be difficult to find out using other methods. Based on the drawings, you can study cognitive processes (sensations, imagination, perception, thinking), creative abilities, personal manifestations, and children’s attitude towards people around them.
Childhood is a term denoting the initial period of ontogenesis, from birth to adolescence. Childhood covers infancy, early childhood, preschool age and primary school age, i.e. lasts from birth to 11 years.
Surely, for some, childhood is associated with carelessness, carefreeness, games, pranks, study, while for others, childhood is a time of active development, change and learning. In fact, childhood is a period of paradoxes and contradictions, without which there can be no development. So, what characterizes this period?
It has been noticed that the higher a living creature stands in the ranks of animals, the longer its childhood lasts and the more helpless this creature is at birth. Undoubtedly, man is the most perfect creature in nature. This is confirmed by its physical structure, organization of the nervous system, types of activity and methods of its regulation. However, when a person is born, he is endowed with only the most basic mechanisms for maintaining life. He is helpless and cannot fend for himself; he requires care, which is carried out for a long time. This is one of the paradoxes of nature that predetermines the history of childhood.
Many scientists have paid attention to the history of childhood. An outstanding specialist in the field of child and educational psychology D.B. Elkonin wrote: “Throughout all human history, the starting point of child development has remained unchanged. The child interacts with a certain ideal form, that is, with the level of cultural development achieved by society in which he was born. This ideal form develops all the time, and develops spasmodically, that is, it changes qualitatively” (D.B. Elkonin, 1995). His words are confirmed by the fact that people of different eras are not alike. Consequently, the development of the psyche in ontogenesis must also change radically.
Time does not stand still. With the development of scientific and technological progress, the life of society becomes more complicated and the child’s position in it changes accordingly. Previously, children mastered primitive tools by helping their parents cultivate the land; they learned this from adults by watching them and repeating their actions. With the development of scientific and technological progress and the emergence of new production relations, tools became more complex, and to master them, observing adults alone was not enough. Therefore, it became necessary to first study the process of mastering these tools and only then begin to use them. Consequently, the new stage of learning was due to the complexity of tools.
D.B. Elkonin connected the periods of child development with the periodization of the development of society (Table 1)
Table 1
Periods of child development according to D.B. Elkonin
End of table. 1
Perhaps in the near future it will become mandatory for everyone to have a higher education for the development of society. This is primarily due to the development of computer technology. But it is impossible to endlessly expand the age limits of childhood, so pedagogical and developmental psychology will most likely be faced with the task of improving teaching methods in order to reduce the time to master the school curriculum.
It turns out that the duration of childhood is directly dependent on the level of material and spiritual development of society and even its individual layers. In many ways, the length of childhood also depends on the material well-being of the family: the poorer the family, the earlier children begin to work.
R. B. Cattell (1905–1997) Anglo-American psychologist, known for his work in the field of experimental psychology of thinking and personality using mathematical methods of analysis, including factor analysis. Creator of the first experimentally based personality test (Cettel's sixteen-factor test).
D. Wexler (1896–1981) - American psychologist, creator of famous intelligence tests for children and adults.
When a person is born, he is endowed with only the most basic mechanisms for maintaining life. In terms of physical structure, organization of the nervous system, types of activity and methods of its regulation, man is the most perfect creature in nature. However, based on the state at the time of birth, there is a noticeable drop in perfection in the evolutionary series - the child does not have any ready-made forms of behavior. As a rule, the higher a living creature stands in the ranks of animals, the longer its childhood lasts, the more helpless this creature is at birth. This is one of the paradoxes of nature that predetermines the history of childhood. In the course of history, the enrichment of the material and spiritual culture of mankind has continuously increased. Over the millennia, human experience has increased many thousands of times. But during this same time, the newborn child has practically not changed.
Childhood- the period lasting from newbornness to full social and, therefore, psychological maturity; This is the period of a child becoming a full-fledged member of human society. Moreover, the duration of childhood in primitive society is not equal to the duration of childhood in the Middle Ages or in our days. The stages of human childhood are a product of history and are as subject to change as they were thousands of years ago. Therefore, it is impossible to study a child’s childhood and the laws of its formation outside the development of human society and the laws that determine its development. The duration of childhood is directly dependent on the level of material and spiritual culture of society.
The problem of childhood history- one of the most difficult in modern child psychology, since in this area it is impossible to conduct either observation or experiment. Theoretically, the question of the historical origin of periods of childhood was developed in the works of P. P. Blonsky, L. S. Vygotsky, D. B. Elkonin. The course of a child’s mental development, according to L. S. Vygotsky, does not obey the eternal laws of nature, the laws of maturation of the organism. The course of child development in a class society, he believed, “has a completely definite class meaning.” That is why he emphasized that there is no eternally childish, but only historically childish.
Historically, the concept of childhood is associated not with a biological state of immaturity, but with a certain social status, with a range of rights and responsibilities inherent in this period of life, with a set of types and forms of activity available to it. The French demographer Philippe Aries collected many facts about how, over the course of history, the concept of childhood developed in the minds of artists, writers and scientists. His studies in the field of fine art led him to the conclusion that before the 12th century, artists did not even try to depict children, with the exception of religious subjects. The differentiation of the ages of human life, including childhood, according to F. Aries, is formed under the influence of social institutions, that is, new forms of social life generated by the development of society. Thus, early childhood first appears within the family, where it is associated with specific communication - “tenderness” and “pampering” of a small child. For parents, a child is simply a pretty, funny baby with whom you can have fun, play with pleasure and at the same time teach and educate him. This is the primary, “family” concept of childhood. The desire to “dress up” children, “pamper” them and “undead” them could only appear in the family. However, this approach to children as “charming toys” could not remain unchanged for long. The development of society has led to further changes in attitudes towards children. A new concept of childhood emerged. For teachers of the 17th century, love for children was no longer expressed in pampering and entertaining them, but in psychological interest in upbringing and teaching. The concept of rational education based on strict discipline penetrates family life in the 18th century. Parents' attention begins to be drawn to all aspects of their child's life. But the function of organizing children’s preparation for adult life is assumed not by the family, but by a special public institution - the school. The school, thanks to its regular, orderly structure, contributed to the further differentiation of that period of life, which is designated by the general word “childhood”. “Class” has become a universal measure that sets a new markup for childhood. A child enters a new age every year as soon as he changes classes. In the past, a child's life and childhood were not divided into such fine layers. Class therefore became a determining factor in the process of differentiation of ages within childhood or adolescence itself. F. Aries's research is devoted to the emergence of the concept of childhood or, in other words, the problem of understanding childhood as a social phenomenon. But when analyzing the concept of F. Aries, it is necessary to remember the psychological laws of awareness. First of all, as JI said. S. Vygotsky, “in order to realize, you need to have something that needs to be realized.” And further studying the process of awareness in detail, J. Piaget emphasized that there is an inevitable delay and a fundamental difference between the formation of a real phenomenon and its reflective reflection.
Childhood has its own laws and, naturally, does not depend on the fact that artists begin to pay attention to children and depict them on their canvases. Even if we accept as indisputable the judgment of F. Aries that art is a reflected picture of morals, works of art in themselves cannot provide all the necessary data for the analysis of the concept of childhood, and not all of the author’s conclusions can be agreed with. The study of F. Aries begins with the Middle Ages, for only at that time did pictorial subjects depicting children appear. But caring for children, the idea of education, of course, appeared long before the Middle Ages. Already in Aristotle there are thoughts dedicated to children. In addition, the work of F. Aries is limited to the study of the childhood of only a European child from the upper strata of society and describes the history of childhood without connection with the socio-economic level of development of society.
As D. B. Elkonin emphasized , childhood arises when the child cannot be directly included in the system of social reproduction, since the child cannot yet master the tools due to their complexity. As a result, the natural inclusion of children in productive labor is delayed. According to D. B. Elkonin, this lengthening in time occurs not by building a new period of development over existing ones (as F. Aries believed), but by a kind of wedging in a new period of development, leading to an “upward shift in time” of the period of mastering the tools of production . D. B. Elkonin brilliantly revealed these features of childhood when analyzing the emergence of role-playing games and a detailed examination of the psychological characteristics of primary school age.
According to the views of Soviet psychologists, studying child development historically means studying the child’s transition from one age stage to another, studying the change in his personality within each age period that occurs in specific historical conditions. And although the history of childhood has not yet been sufficiently studied, the very formulation of this question in the psychology of the 20th century is important. And if, according to D. B. Elkonin, there are still no answers to many questions in the theory of a child’s mental development, then the path to a solution can already be imagined. And it is seen in the light of the historical study of childhood.
